The Marine Life Information Network

Substratum loss

Benchmark. All of the substratum occupied by the species or biotope under consideration is removed. A single event is assumed for sensitivity assessment. Once the activity or event has stopped (or between regular events) suitable substratum remains or is deposited. Species or community recovery assumes that the substratum within the habitat preferences of the original species or community is present. Further details

Evidence

Ulva intestinalis, forms a permanent attachment to a solid substratum (although the species may continue to grow in mats if displaced from the substratum, it requires a substratum for development), so would be intolerant of substratum loss. Intolerance has been assessed to be high and recoverability very high (see additional information below).

Smothering

Benchmark. All of the population of a species or an area of a biotope is smothered by sediment to a depth of 5 cm above the substratum for one month. Impermeable materials, such as concrete, oil, or tar, are likely to have a greater effect. Further details.

Evidence

Ulva intestinalis is a filamentous seaweed without structural support for its thalli, therefore it is likely that entire plants would be smothered by an additional covering of 5 cm of sediment. Smothering would interfere with photosynthesis and over the period of one month the seaweed may begin to rot. Intolerance to smothering has been assessed to be high. However, on return to prior conditions the species is likely to rapidly recolonize the available substratum (see additional information below) and recoverability has been assessed to be very high.

Increase in suspended sediment

Benchmark. An arbitrary short-term, acute change in background suspended sediment concentration e.g., a change of 100 mg/l for one month. The resultant light attenuation effects are addressed under turbidity, and the effects of rapid settling out of suspended sediment are addressed under smothering. Further details

Evidence

The effects of increased suspended sediment on adults is likely to be indirect but include smothering (above) as a result of siltation, and increased turbidity and therefore light attenuation (see below). In areas where Ulva intestinalis occurs on the shore, current flows are reduced and siltation is likely to be increased. Spores, germlings and juveniles are likely to be highly intolerant of sediment scour and smothering (Vadas et al. 1992). However, Ulva intestinalis also occurs in estuarine environments where elevated levels of suspended sediment are likely to be experienced, so the species may demonstrate some tolerance. Intolerance has been assessed to be intermediate, as a proportion of the population , especially germlings may be adversely affected by increased suspended sediment. Recoverability has been assessed to be very high (see additional information below).

Decrease in suspended sediment

Benchmark. An arbitrary short-term, acute change in background suspended sediment concentration e.g., a change of 100 mg/l for one month. The resultant light attenuation effects are addressed under turbidity, and the effects of rapid settling out of suspended sediment are addressed under smothering. Further details

Evidence

Ulva intestinalis is unlikely to be affected by a decrease in suspended sediment concentrations, and an assessment of tolerant has been made.

Desiccation

1. A normally subtidal, demersal or pelagic species including intertidal migratory or under-boulder species is continuously exposed to air and sunshine for one hour.
2. A normally intertidal species or community is exposed to a change in desiccation equivalent to a change in position of one vertical biological zone on the shore, e.g., from upper eulittoral to the mid eulittoral or from sublittoral fringe to lower eulittoral for a period of one year. Further details.

Evidence

Ulva intestinalis is often very abundant on the high shore where desiccation stress is the primary factor controlling seaweed distribution, and may even be found above the tidal limits of the shore. Ulva intestinalis (studied as Enteromorpha intestinalis) can survive several weeks of living in completely dried out rock pools, while becoming completely bleached on the uppermost layers, but remaining moist underneath the bleached fronds. Its ability to survive out of water for so long makes it an ideal refuge for copepods in supralittoral rockpools (McAllen, 1999). Several studies have indicated that stress from aerial exposure can cause high mortality to algal propagules. Baker (1910) found a positive correlation between the vertical distribution of a species and the ability of zygotes to develop in desiccated environments. Hruby & Norton (1979) found that 7-14 day old germlings of Ulva (studied as Enteromorpha) were more tolerant of desiccation than earlier stages, so an increase in desiccation stress may impact more adversely on newly settled germlings than more mature plants. An intolerance assessment of low has been made to the benchmark change in desiccation and recoverability recorded to be very high (see additional information below).

Increase in emergence regime

Benchmark. A one hour change in the time covered or not covered by the sea for a period of one year. Further details

Evidence

Ulva intestinalis is often very abundant on the high shore where desiccation stress is the primary factor controlling seaweed distribution, and may even be found above the tidal limits of the shore, so is tolerant of emergence to some extent. Furthermore, above Mean High Water Springs (MHWS) level, Ulva intestinalis tends to preferentially inhabit rock pools or is associated with trickles of freshwater that cross the shore, and in such positions the risk of desiccation is reduced. Owing to increased emergence, the species that graze on Ulva intestinalis are likely to be less active, owing to risk of desiccation, and the seaweed may benefit from reduced grazing pressure. An assessment of tolerant* has been made.

Decrease in emergence regime

Benchmark. A one hour change in the time covered or not covered by the sea for a period of one year. Further details

Evidence

Ulva intestinalis is unlikely to be directly affected by a decrease in the emergence regime, as occurs into the subtidal zone. However, it is the preferred food resource of the snail Littorina littorea (Lubchenco, 1978) and is grazed by other prosobranchs, all of which will probably be more active grazing during periods of immersion, so that the additional grazing pressure is likely to affect the population. An intolerance assessment of low has been made. A recoverability of very high has been recorded (see additional information, below).

Increase in water flow rate

A change of two categories in water flow rate (view glossary) for 1 year, for example, from moderately strong (1-3 knots) to very weak (negligible). Further details

Evidence

Ulva intestinalis is not of a growth form that offers resistance to tidal flow. The fronds would conform to the direction of the flow until drag effects caused tearing of the fronds or dislodgement of the holdfast. Increased scour from sand mobilized by increased tidal streams may cause more damage to the seaweed than increased water flow itself. However, recovery of the species is unlikely to be inhibited by increases water flow. For instance, Houghton et al. (1973) observed that swarmers of Ulva were able to settle onto surfaces subjected to water speeds of up to 10.7 knots. Intolerance has been assessed to be intermediate, as a proportion of the population may be damaged by increased water flow. Recruitment is not likely to be adversely affected and has been assessed to be very high (see additional information, below).

Decrease in water flow rate

A change of two categories in water flow rate (view glossary) for 1 year, for example, from moderately strong (1-3 knots) to very weak (negligible). Further details

Evidence

Ulva intestinalis is unlikely to be adversely affected by a decrease in water flow rate, as it occurs in locations, e.g. rockpools, where water flow is negligible. An assessment of tolerant has been made.

Increase in temperature

1. A short-term, acute change in temperature; e.g., a 5°C change in the temperature range for three consecutive days. This definition includes ‘short-term’ thermal discharges.
2. A long-term, chronic change in temperature; e.g. a 2°C change in the temperature range for a year. This definition includes ‘long term’ thermal discharges.

For intertidal species or communities, the range of temperatures includes the air temperature regime for that species or community. Further details

Evidence

Ulva intestinalis occurs to the south of the British Isles, so is likely to be tolerant of a chronic increase in temperature of 2°C. Also, it is characteristic of upper shore rock pools, where water and air temperatures are greatly elevated on hot days. Clarke (1992) reviewed the influence of cooling water effluent on shore communities. Effects are usually restricted to the immediate vicinity of the outfall, but brown seaweeds of the genus, e.g. Ascophyllum and Fucus were eliminated from a rocky shore heated to 27-30 °C by a power station in Maine, whilst Ulva intestinalis (as Enteromorpha intestinalis) increased significantly near the outfall (Vadas et al., 1976). The evidence suggests that Ulva intestinalis would probably tolerate the benchmark increase in temperature and may benefit indirectly (through loss of competitors) and an assessment of tolerant* has been made.

Decrease in temperature

1. A short-term, acute change in temperature; e.g., a 5°C change in the temperature range for three consecutive days. This definition includes ‘short-term’ thermal discharges.
2. A long-term, chronic change in temperature; e.g. a 2°C change in the temperature range for a year. This definition includes ‘long term’ thermal discharges.

For intertidal species or communities, the range of temperatures includes the air temperature regime for that species or community. Further details

Evidence

Ulva intestinalis occurs to the north of the British Isles, so is likely to be tolerant of a chronic decrease in temperature of 2°C, and one of the factors contributing to its success as a fouling organism, is its ability to withstand a wide range and variation of temperature Ulva sp. (as Enteromorpha) were reported to be tolerant of a temperature of -20°C (Kylin, 1917). The evidence suggests that Ulva intestinalis would tolerate the benchmark decrease in temperature.

Increase in turbidity

1. A short-term, acute change; e.g., two categories of the water clarity scale (see glossary) for one month, such as from medium to extreme turbidity.
2. A long-term, chronic change; e.g., one category of the water clarity scale (see glossary) for one year, such as from low to medium turbidity. Further details

Evidence

The light attenuating effects of increased turbidity are likely to impact on the photosynthetic efficiency of Ulva intestinalis, with consequential effects on growth. An intolerance assessment of low has been made to reflect the effect of increased turbidity on the viability of the species. On return to prior conditions recovery is likely to be rapid and growth resume, a recoverability of very high has been recorded.

Decrease in turbidity

1. A short-term, acute change; e.g., two categories of the water clarity scale (see glossary) for one month, such as from medium to extreme turbidity.
2. A long-term, chronic change; e.g., one category of the water clarity scale (see glossary) for one year, such as from low to medium turbidity. Further details

Evidence

As a photoautotroph, Ulva intestinalis, is likely to benefit from reduced turbidity, as the light attenuating effects of turbid water reduce photosynthesis. An assessment of tolerant* has been made.

Increase in wave exposure

A change of two ranks on the wave exposure scale (view glossary) e.g., from Exposed to Extremely exposed for a period of one year. Further details

Evidence

Wave induced scouring and burial of habitats by sand tends to prevent seaweed growth, except for those that are stress tolerant, robust perennials, or opportunistic ephemeral species such as Ulva intestinalis. This species settles when disturbance is at a minimum and rocks are bare, reproduces and disappears when physical disturbance begins again. In wave exposed locations, it is likely that an increase in wave exposure would inhibit settlement of propagules belonging to Ulva intestinalis so that a population would become impoverished. An intolerance assessment of low has been made to reflect the probable impact on the species recruitment. On return to prior conditions, recovery is likely to occur within a matter of weeks, and recoverability has been assessed to be very high (see additional information, below).

Decrease in wave exposure

A change of two ranks on the wave exposure scale (view glossary) e.g., from Exposed to Extremely exposed for a period of one year. Further details

Evidence

Ulva intestinalis occurs in locations with a variety of wave exposures. It is unlikely that the species would be directly adversely affected by decreased wave exposure. An assessment of tolerant has been made.

Noise

1. Underwater noise levels e.g., the regular passing of a 30-metre trawler at 100 metres or a working cutter-suction transfer dredge at 100 metres for one month during important feeding or breeding periods.
2. Atmospheric noise levels e.g., the regular passing of a Boeing 737 passenger jet 300 metres overhead for one month during important feeding or breeding periods. Further details

Evidence

Seaweeds have no known mechanism for noise perception.

Visual presence

Benchmark. The continuous presence for one month of moving objects not naturally found in the marine environment (e.g., boats, machinery, and humans) within the visual envelope of the species or community under consideration. Further details

Evidence

Seaweeds have no known mechanism for visual perception.

Abrasion & physical disturbance

Benchmark. Force equivalent to a standard scallop dredge landing on or being dragged across the organism. A single event is assumed for assessment. This factor includes mechanical interference, crushing, physical blows against, or rubbing and erosion of the organism or habitat of interest. Where trampling is relevant, the evidence and trampling intensity will be reported in the rationale. Further details.

Evidence

Ulva intestinalis is likely to be susceptible to abrasion as it is not of a resilient growth form and would easily be scraped from the substratum by dragging objects. Therefore, intolerance has been assessed as high. However, Ulva intestinalis reproduces rapidly to colonize available substrata, and recoverability has been assessed to be very high (see additional information below).

Displacement

Benchmark. Removal of the organism from the substratum and displacement from its original position onto a suitable substratum. A single event is assumed for assessment. Further details

Evidence

Ulva intestinalis typically forms a permanent attachment to suitable substrata, suggesting that it would be intolerant of displacement. However, in some circumstances, the algae may becomes detached from the substratum, and buoyed-up by gas, it floats up to the surface and continues to grow in mats (e.g. Baeck et al., 2000). The thalli of the seaweed tend to loose their tubular shape, spread, and formed unattached monostromatic sheets. On account of the ability of the algae to continue growing as an unattached mat, following displacement, an assessment of not sensitive has been made.

Synthetic compound contamination

Sensitivity is assessed against the available evidence for the effects of contaminants on the species (or closely related species at low confidence) or community of interest. For example:

• evidence of mass mortality of a population of the species or community of interest (either short or long term) in response to a contaminant will be ranked as high sensitivity;
• evidence of reduced abundance, or extent of a population of the species or community of interest (either short or long term) in response to a contaminant will be ranked as intermediate sensitivity;
• evidence of sub-lethal effects or reduced reproductive potential of a population of the species or community of interest will be assessed as low sensitivity.

The evidence used is stated in the rationale. Where the assessment can be based on a known activity then this is stated. The tolerance to contaminants of species of interest will be included in the rationale when available; together with relevant supporting material. Further details.

Evidence

Ulva intestinalis has been assessed to have an intermediate intolerance to synthetic chemical pollution as available evidence highlights adverse effects upon the species viability and damage leading to death.
For instance, although herbicides tend not to be used directly in the marine environment, they can enter estuarine areas via river discharge and runoff. Paraquat and 3AT were tested for their effects on the settlement, germination and growth of Ulva (as Enteromorpha) (Moss & Woodhead, 1975). They found that zygotes were able to develop into filaments in the presence of Paraquat at 7 mg/L, but that germination was deferred at higher concentrations. Zygotes demonstrated increased resistance when they settled in clumps on the substratum, and green thalli of Ulva were more susceptible than ungerminated zygotes. Ulva was more intolerant of 3AT than to Paraquat.
However, synthetic chemicals used as antifouling agents may be directly introduced into the marine environment. Scarlett et al. (1997) analyzed water samples taken from the Plymouth Sound locality for the presence of the s-triazine herbicide, Irgarol 1051, which is an ingredient of antifouling paints used on pleasure boats and ships. Irgarol 1051 was detected at all sampling sites within the Sound; the highest levels were found in close proximity to areas of high boat density, especially where water flow was restricted within marinas, although concentrations within the semi-enclosed Sutton Harbour were less than values predicted from leach rate data. The highest detected concentration of over 120 ng/L significantly inhibited the growth of Ulva intestinalis (as Enteromorpha intestinalis) spores under laboratory conditions; the no effect concentration was 22 ng/L. Photosynthetic efficiency in the adult frond of Ulva intestinalis from Sutton Harbour marina was inhibited by Irgarol 1051 in the laboratory with an EC 50 (72 h) of 2.5 µg/L. A small adverse impact on Ulva intestinalis reproduction within harbours is therefore likely.
Following the Torrey Canyon tanker oil spill, copious amounts of solvent based detergents were sprayed directly on to the shore. Algae on the higher shore was especially affected, and included Ulva intestinalis (as Enteromorpha intestinalis in high level rock pools where it was killed (Smith, 1968).
Assuming deterioration of contaminants, recoverability has been assessed to be high (see additional information below).

Heavy metal contamination

Evidence

The order of metal toxicity to algae varies, with the algal species and experimental conditions, but generally the order is Hg>Cu>Cd>Ag>Pb>Zn (Rice et al., 1973; Rai et al., 1981). The effects of copper on macrophytes have been more extensively studied than the effects of any other metal owing to its use in antifouling paints. Lewis et al. (1998) investigated the influence of copper exposure and heatshock on the physiology and cellular stress response of Ulva intestinalis (as Enteromorpha intestinalis). Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are known to be expressed in response to a variety of stress conditions, including heavy metals (Lewis et al., 1999). Ulva intestinalis was exposed to a range of copper concentrations (0-500 µg ^-1 for 5 days, to assess the effect of copper exposure on stress proteins (Stress-70 levels) and physiology of the seaweed. Stress-70 was induced by copper exposure, but was found to be no better an indicator of copper exposure than measurement of growth, which is inhibited by copper.
Species of the genus Ulva seem to be especially suitable for monitoring heavy metals in coastal areas and estuaries as it is ubiquitous in both and laboratory experiments have shown that accumulation of Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb by four different species of Ulva (as Enteromorpha) was sufficiently similar to justify pooling samples of the genus for field monitoring (Say et al., 1990). The interactions of salinity and temperature with toxicity are not always clear. For instance, Munda (1984) found that the Zn, Mn and Co accumulations in Ulva intestinalis (as Enteromorpha intestinalis) could be enhanced by decreasing the salinity.
In the absence of evidence to the contrary, an intolerance assessment of low has been made, as available evidence suggests that Ulva is relatively tolerant of heavy metal exposure at environmentally realistic concentrations, but experiences reduced growth. On return to prior conditions, and assuming deterioration of the contaminants recovery would probably be rapid.

Hydrocarbon contamination

Evidence

Ulva intestinalis is likely to demonstrate intolerance to hydrocarbon contamination. Likely effects include smothering, inhibition of respiration and photosynthesis, bleaching and interference with reproduction, so that affected populations may be destroyed. Intolerance has been assessed to be high. However, the species tends to recover very rapidly from oil pollution incidents. For instance, after the Torrey Canyon tanker oil in 1967, grazing species were killed, and a dense flush of ephemeral green algae (Ulva, Blidingia) appeared on the rocky shore within a few weeks and persisted for up to one year (Smith, 1968). Recoverability has been assessed to be very high (see additional information, below).

Radionuclide contamination

Evidence

Ulva sp. are known to be able to acquire large concentrations of substances from surrounding water. In the vicinity of the Sellafield nuclear plant, England, Ulva (as Enteromorpha) sp. accumulated zirconium, niobium, cerium and plutonium-239, however the species appeared to be unaffected by the radionuclides (Clark, 1997).

Changes in nutrient levels

Evidence

Nitrogen enrichment enhances growth of Ulva intestinalis (as Enteromorpha intestinalis) (Kamer & Fong, 2001), making the species a useful indicator of nutrient enrichment, although it also thrives in 'un-enriched' water. High levels of nutrient enrichment were found to mitigate the negative effects that reduced salinity can have on the growth of the species (Kamer & Fong, 2001). An assessment of tolerant* has been made as Ulva intestinalis is likely to increase in abundance as a consequence of nutrient enrichment.
However, excessive growth of green seaweeds in response to nutrients derived from sewage effluent is becoming an increasingly common phenomena in sheltered marine bays (e.g. Soulsby et al., 1985). An overabundance of Ulva (as Enteromorpha) on the tidal flats of the Wadden Zee during summer was attributed to eutrophication by adjacent sewage effluents (Reise, 1983). Mats were initially composed of Ulva, but later joined by Cladophora, Chaetomorpha and Porphyra. The mats became anchored to the feeding tunnels of the abundant Arenicola marina, and so avoided displacement by tidal currents. Although the mats lasted little longer than a month, the sediment beneath the algal mats became anoxic, and the species composition was affected.

Increase in salinity

1. A short-term, acute change; e.g., a change of two categories from the MNCR salinity scale for one week (view glossary) such as from full to reduced.
2. A long-term, chronic change; e.g., a change of one category from the MNCR salinity scale for one year (view glossary) such as from reduced to low. Further details.

Evidence

Ulva intestinalis has a cosmopolitan distribution throughout coastal areas and estuaries and is considered to be a remarkably euryhaline species, tolerant of extreme salinities ranging from 0 psu to 136 psu.
However, on the basis of evidence available, it is likely that some populations of the algae would be more intolerant of an increase in ambient salinity than others. Reed & Russell (1979) found that the response (ability to regenerate from cut thalli) of individual populations varied according to the salinity conditions of the original habitat, and that the pattern of euryhalinity in parental material and offspring was in broad agreement. This led Reed & Russell (1979) to suggest that salinity tolerances of selected populations have a genetic basis. For example;

• eulittoral zone material showed decreased percentage regeneration in all salinities (dilute: 0, 4.25, 8.5, 17 & 25.5 psu, and concentrated seawater: 51, 68, 95, 102 & 136 psu) except 34 psu, when compared to littoral fringe populations of Ulva intestinalis (as Enteromorpha intestinalis).
• none of the eulittoral zone material was able to regenerate in freshwater or concentrated seawater, whilst littoral fringe and rock pool material was able to do so.

Increased salinity is most likely to occur in the region of the littoral fringe and supralittoral zone. For instance, during the summer, owing to excessive evaporation brine precipitation may occur in rockpools containing Ulva intestinalisand salinity has been reported to rise as high as 180 psu (Reed & Russell, 1979). In follow-up experiments, littoral fringe specimens showed an increased capacity to survive in media of extreme salinity, a significant decrease in regeneration only being recorded after exposure to concentrated seawater (102 psu and 136 psu) for > 7 days.
At the benchmark level an assessment of not sensitive has been made for the average population of the species.

Decrease in salinity

1. A short-term, acute change; e.g., a change of two categories from the MNCR salinity scale for one week (view glossary) such as from full to reduced.
2. A long-term, chronic change; e.g., a change of one category from the MNCR salinity scale for one year (view glossary) such as from reduced to low. Further details.

Evidence

Ulva intestinalis has a cosmopolitan distribution throughout coastal areas and estuaries and is considered to be a remarkably euryhaline species, tolerant of extreme salinities ranging from 0 psu to 136 psu. However, on the basis of evidence available, it is likely that some populations of the algae would be more intolerant of reductions in ambient salinity than others. For instance, Reed & Russell (1979) found that the response (ability to regenerate from cut thalli) of individual populations varied according to the salinity conditions of the original habitat, and that the pattern of euryhalinity in parental material and offspring was in broad agreement. This led Reed & Russell (1979) to suggest that salinity tolerances of selected populations have a genetic basis. For example;

• eulittoral zone material showed decreased percentage regeneration in all salinities (dilute: 0, 4.25, 8.5, 17 & 25.5 psu, full: 34 psu and concentrated seawater: 51, 68, 95, 102 & 136 psu) except 34 psu, when compared to littoral fringe populations of Ulva intestinalis (as Enteromorpha intestinalis).
• none of the eulittoral zone material was able to regenerate in freshwater or concentrated seawater, whilst littoral fringe and rock pool material was able to do so.

Reduced salinity has also been reported to affect the growth rate of Ulva intestinalis. Martins et al. (1999) observed that in years with high precipitation and significant increase of freshwater runoff to the Mondego estuary (west Portugal), that Ulva intestinalis (as Enteromorpha intestinalis) failed to bloom. In the laboratory, the growth rate of Ulva intestinalis was measured against a range of salinities, from 0 to 32 psu. Ulva intestinalis showed the lowest growth rates at extremely low salinity values (less than or equal to 3 psu), and for salinity less than or equal to 1 psu, the algae died. Growth rates at a salinity lower than 5 psu and higher than 25 psu were also low, in comparison to growth between a salinity of 15 and 20 psu, where Ulva intestinalis showed the highest growth rates. Martin et al. (1999) concluded that episodes of reduced salinity were an important external parameter in controlling the growth of Ulva intestinalis. However, elsewhere Ulva intestinalis is known to thrive in areas of the supralittoral zone that receive freshwater runoff.
At the benchmark level an assessment of not sensitive has been made for the average population of the species. Furthermore, Kamer & Fong (2001) found that high nitrogen enrichment mitigated the negative effects that reduced salinity had on Ulva intestinalis (as Enteromorpha intestinalis) dry biomass, wet : dry biomass, tissue nutrients and ability to remove phosphorus from the water column.

Changes in oxygenation

Benchmark.  Exposure to a dissolved oxygen concentration of 2 mg/l for one week. Further details.

Evidence

There is insufficient information available to make an assessment about the effects of reduced oxygen in the water column upon Ulva intestinalis.

Introduction of microbial pathogens/parasites

Benchmark. Sensitivity can only be assessed relative to a known, named disease, likely to cause partial loss of a species population or community. Further details.

Evidence

No information was found concerning the effects of microbial pathogens on Ulva intestinalis.

Introduction of non-native species

Sensitivity assessed against the likely effect of the introduction of alien or non-native species in Britain or Ireland. Further details.

Evidence

Ulva intestinalis is not known to be adversely affected by non-native species.

Extraction of this species

Benchmark. Extraction removes 50% of the species or community from the area under consideration. Sensitivity will be assessed as 'intermediate'. The habitat remains intact or recovers rapidly. Any effects of the extraction process on the habitat itself are addressed under other factors, e.g. displacement, abrasion and physical disturbance, and substratum loss. Further details.

Evidence

The benchmark for extraction is the removal of 50% of the Ulva intestinalis population from the area under consideration. Intolerance has therefore been assessed to be intermediate and recoverability very high as a localized populations of the species will remain from which recruitment can occur (see additional information below).

Extraction of other species

Benchmark. A species that is a required host or prey for the species under consideration (and assuming that no alternative host exists) or a keystone species in a biotope is removed. Any effects of the extraction process on the habitat itself are addressed under other factors, e.g. displacement, abrasion and physical disturbance, and substratum loss. Further details.

Evidence

No other species are identified to be host or prey items for Ulva intestinalis.