Distribution data supplied by the Ocean Biodiversity Information System (OBIS). To interrogate UK data visit the NBN Atlas.Map Help
Researched by | Georgina Budd & Joelene Hughes | Refereed by | This information is not refereed |
Authority | Savigny in Lamarck, 1818 | ||
Other common names | - | Synonyms | - |
Two other Nephtys species have previously been synonymous with Nephtys hombergii. Nephtys assimilis and Nephtys kersivalensis are now recognized as separate species as described in Rainer (1989) and Rainer (1991). Consequently, some records of the geographical distribution of Nephtys hombergii should be viewed with caution (Olive & Morgan, 1991).
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Phylum | Annelida | Segmented worms e.g. ragworms, tubeworms, fanworms and spoon worms |
Class | Polychaeta | Bristleworms, e.g. ragworms, scaleworms, paddleworms, fanworms, tubeworms and spoon worms |
Order | Phyllodocida | |
Family | Nephtyidae | |
Genus | Nephtys | |
Authority | Savigny in Lamarck, 1818 | |
Recent Synonyms |
Typical abundance | See additional information | ||
Male size range | 100-200mm | ||
Male size at maturity | |||
Female size range | Medium(11-20 cm) | ||
Female size at maturity | |||
Growth form | Vermiform segmented | ||
Growth rate | |||
Body flexibility | High (greater than 45 degrees) | ||
Mobility | |||
Characteristic feeding method | Non-feeding, Scavenger, Predator | ||
Diet/food source | Planktotroph | ||
Typically feeds on | Molluscs, crustaceans & other polychaetes. | ||
Sociability | |||
Environmental position | Infaunal | ||
Dependency | No information found. | ||
Supports | No information | ||
Is the species harmful? | No |
Physiographic preferences | Open coast, Estuary, Enclosed coast / Embayment |
Biological zone preferences | Lower eulittoral, Mid eulittoral, Sublittoral fringe |
Substratum / habitat preferences | Coarse clean sand, Fine clean sand, Muddy sand, Sandy mud |
Tidal strength preferences | No information |
Wave exposure preferences | Extremely sheltered, Moderately exposed, Sheltered, Very sheltered |
Salinity preferences | Reduced (18-30 psu), Variable (18-40 psu) |
Depth range | |
Other preferences | No text entered |
Migration Pattern | Non-migratory / resident |
Nephtys species penetrate into the mouths of estuaries and estuarine lagoons until the salinity falls below 20 psu, but Nephtys hombergii occasionally extends into waters with a salinity <18 psu (Barnes, 1994). Clark & Haderlie (1960) found Nephtys hombergii in the Bristol Channel at salinities between 15.9 psu and 25.1 psu.
Reproductive type | Gonochoristic (dioecious) | |
Reproductive frequency | Annual protracted | |
Fecundity (number of eggs) | No information | |
Generation time | 2-3 years | |
Age at maturity | 2 years | |
Season | See additional information | |
Life span | 2-5 years |
Larval/propagule type | - |
Larval/juvenile development | Lecithotrophic |
Duration of larval stage | 1-2 months |
Larval dispersal potential | No information |
Larval settlement period | Insufficient information |
The MarLIN sensitivity assessment approach used below has been superseded by the MarESA (Marine Evidence-based Sensitivity Assessment) approach (see menu). The MarLIN approach was used for assessments from 1999-2010. The MarESA approach reflects the recent conservation imperatives and terminology and is used for sensitivity assessments from 2014 onwards.
Intolerance | Recoverability | Sensitivity | Evidence/Confidence | |
Intermediate | Very high | Low | High | |
Nephtys hombergii lives infaunally so a considerable proportion of a population within an area would be removed with the sediment. However, the species is a rapid burrower and is able to swim using an undulatory movement, so some may escape the factor if the disturbance is detected in sufficient time. Intolerance has been assessed to be intermediate. Recoverability has been assessed to be very high as recolonization would occur via adult migration and larval settlement. Dittman et al. (1999) observed that Nephtys hombergii was amongst the macrofauna that colonized experimentally disturbed tidal flats within two weeks of the disturbance that caused defaunation of the sediment. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | High | |
Nephtys hombergii is an active polychaete that uses its eversible proboscis to dig rapidly through the sediment. Vader (1964) observed that the worm relocates throughout the tidal cycle (see general adult biology). It is unlikely therefore, that Nephtys hombergii would be adversely affected by additional sediment of a texture consistent with that of the habitat. At the benchmark level an assessment of not sensitive has been made. It is likely that viscous or impermeable materials would prevent the polychaete coming to the surface to seek food, but as it hunts infaunally and is mobile and therefore may be able to travel sufficient distance beneath impermeable materials in avoidance and therefore may survive for a period of one month. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | Low | |
Nephtys hombergii lives infaunally and is a predatory species feeding on molluscs, crustaceans and other polychaetes. Increased suspended sediment would not interfere with its feeding. An assessment of not sensitive has been made. | ||||
Not relevant | Not relevant | Not relevant | High | |
Nephtys hombergii lives infaunally and is a predatory species feeding on molluscs, crustaceans and other polychaetes. Decreased suspended sediment would not interfere with its ability to feed. An assessment of not relevant has been made. | ||||
Not relevant | Not relevant | Not relevant | High | |
The infaunal habit of Nephtys hombergii and its ability to burrow relatively rapidly through, and into the substratum are likely to aid the species in its avoidance of increased desiccation in the intertidal zone. Specimens at the uppermost of their distribution in the intertidal zone may become stressed by desiccation if the substratum begins to dry but Nephtys hombergii is sufficiently mobile to relocate to damper substrata. For instance, Vader (1964) observed that the worm relocates throughout the tidal cycle (see general adult biology). An assessment of not relevant has been made. | ||||
Not relevant | Not relevant | Not relevant | Low | |
An increase in emergence regime is also likely to cause a decline in the abundance of polychaetes at the uppermost edge of their distribution in the intertidal zone, as they would experience drying of the substratum. Nephtys hombergii is sufficiently mobile to rapidly burrow and seek damper substrates. For instance, Vader (1964) observed that the worm relocates throughout the tidal cycle (see general adult biology). Consequently, an intolerance assessment of not relevant has been made as the species is protected from the factor by its habit. | ||||
Low | Very high | Very Low | Low | |
When the substratum is immersed Nephtys hombergii comes to the surface to feed, but also hunts within the substratum at other times. A longer immersion time may mean that Nephtys hombergii spends longer at the surface where it would be prone to predation by demersal fish. However, as such hunting is part of the polychaetes normal behaviour, effects of a decrease in emergence are unlikely to have a significant effect on the populations viability and intolerance has been assessed to be low. Recoverability has been assessed to be very high as recolonization of the substratum would occur via adult migration and larval settlement. Dittman et al. (1999) observed that Nephtys hombergii was amongst the macrofauna that colonized experimentally disturbed tidal flats within two weeks of the disturbance that caused defaunation of the sediment. | ||||
Low | Very high | Very Low | Low | |
Nephtys hombergii lives within the sediment but may surface during periods of immersion to hunt on the surface where it would experience surface currents, but its size and growth form mean that it would not protrude above the substratum and therefore is unlikely to be swept away. Furthermore, if the polychaete finds conditions intolerable at the surface it may cease to emerge and only hunt infaunal prey. The locations where Nephtys hombergii is typically found have low rates of water flow, which favour the deposition of finer sediments. Increased water flow over a period of one year may cause erosion of the finer fractions of the sediment. Although Nephtys hombergii may inhabit a variety of substrata, it is reported to occur in highest densities in muddier sediments (see adult distribution) and consequently other species of Nephtyidae e.g. Nephtys cirrosa, that favour coarser cleaner sands may become dominant in the habitat. Nephtys hombergii may suffer reduced viability as a result of changes in its habitat and competition. Intolerance has been assessed to be low. Recoverability has been assessed to be very high as recolonization of the substratum would occur via adult migration and larval settlement. Dittman et al. (1999) observed that Nephtys hombergii was amongst the macrofauna that colonized experimentally disturbed tidal flats within two weeks of the disturbance that caused defaunation of the sediment. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | Low | |
Nephtys hombergii may be found in and amongst a variety of substrata, but has been recorded in higher abundance in muddy sands in locations with relatively low water flow. As a consequence of decreased water flow, over a period of one year, the habitat in which Nephtys hombergii lives is likely to accumulate additional sediment but would probably remain within the habitat preferences of the species. It is also unlikely that the behaviour of the polychaete would change. An assessment of tolerant has been made. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | High | |
By virtue of its burrowing habit and of its preference for the sublittoral and lower part of the littoral, Nephtys hombergii seems able to withstand extremes of temperature (Clay, 1967f). The species is found to the south of the British Isles (Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts in the southern hemisphere), so is likely to tolerate a long-term increase of 2°C. Emery & Stevensen (1957) found that the polychaete could withstand summer temperatures of 30-35°C so may also be able to tolerate a short-term acute increase in temperature. In addition, the species environmental position and mobility probably protects it from the factor. Therefore, an assessment of tolerant has been recorded. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | High | |
Nephtys hombergii by virtue of its burrowing habit and of its preference for the sublittoral and lower part of the littoral seems able to withstand extremes of temperature (Clay, 1967f). The species is found to the north of the British Isles so is apparently tolerant of average temperatures lower than those it experiences in the British Isles. Raymont (1955) commented that Nephtys hombergii did not appear to suffer on the Argyleshire coast during the severe winter of 1946, as the polychaetes habitat was at low water level and beneath the sediment, it was unaffected by the intertidal freezing. Crisp (1964) also found no evidence that the polychaete was affected by the severe winter of 1962-63 on the north Wales coast. In addition, the species environmental position and mobility probably protects it from the factor. Therefore, an assessment of tolerant has been recorded. | ||||
Not relevant | Not relevant | Not relevant | Not relevant | |
Nephtys hombergii lives infaunally between a depth of 5 and 15 cm where light is not transmitted. An increase in turbidity is unlikely to have a detectable effect on the viability of the species and an assessment of not relevant has been made. | ||||
Not relevant | Not relevant | Not relevant | Not relevant | |
Nephtys hombergii lives infaunally between a depth of 5 and 15 cm where light is not transmitted. A decrease in turbidity is unlikely to have a detectable effect on the viability of the species and an assessment of not relevant has been made. | ||||
Intermediate | Very high | Low | Moderate | |
Nephtys hombergii lives infaunally but may sometimes partially emerge to seek and capture food but does not present a significant surface area to wave action to sustain physical damage. Clark & Haderlie (1960) and Clark, Alder & McIntyre (1962) suggested that strong wave action limited the distribution of Nephtys hombergii. Increased wave action for the duration of one year may begin to change the nature of the substratum that the polychaete inhabits and its distribution may consequently alter. Therefore, an intolerance of intermediate has been recorded. On return to prior conditions recoverability may be very high as recolonization of the substratum would occur via adult migration as well as larval settlement. For instance, Dittman et al. (1999) observed that Nephtys hombergii was amongst the macrofauna that colonized experimentally disturbed tidal flats within two weeks of the disturbance that caused defaunation of the sediment. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | ||
Clark & Haderlie (1960) and Clark, Alder & McIntyre (1962) suggested that strong wave action limited the distribution of Nephtys hombergii, so it may be inferred that decreased wave exposure would not be detrimental to the species so an intolerance assessment of tolerant has been suggested. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | Low | |
Nephtys hombergii would probably detect vibration caused by noise, but noise at the benchmark level is unlikely to have a detectable effect on the viability of the species and an assessment of tolerant has been suggested. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | Moderate | |
Nephtyidae possess primitive photoreceptors (Clark, 1956) and are unlikely to have the acuity to visually detect objects moving about on the surface of the overlying water. An assessment of not sensitive has been suggested. | ||||
Intermediate | Very high | Low | Low | |
Nephtys hombergii lives in sediment between a depth of 5-15 cm and is therefore protected from most sources of abrasion and physical disturbance caused by surface action. However, it is likely to be damaged by any activity (e.g. anchors, or scallop dredging) that penetrates the sediment. Although the species is relatively mobile within the sediment intolerance has been assessed to be intermediate, as some individuals would probably be damaged. Recovery has been assessed to be very high, as re-population would occur initially relatively rapidly via adult migration and later by larval recruitment. | ||||
Tolerant | Immediate | Not sensitive | High | |
If displaced Nephtys hombergii would be able to bury itself back into the substratum using its eversible proboscis (see general adult biology). It has been assessed to be not sensitive to displacement. |
Intolerance | Recoverability | Sensitivity | Evidence/Confidence | |
Intermediate | High | Low | Low | |
No evidence concerning the specific effects of chemical contaminants on Nephtys hombergii was found. Boon et al. (1985) reported that Nephtys species in the North Sea accumulated organochlorines but, based on total sediment analyses, organochlorine concentrations in Nephtys species were not correlated with the concentrations in the (type of) sediment which they inhabited. Specific effects of synthetic chemicals have been reported for other species of polychaete. Exposure of Hediste diversicolor and Arenicola marina to Ivermecten resulted in significant mortality (see MarLIN reviews; Collier & Pinn, 1998). Beaumont et al. (1989) investigated the effects of tri-butyl tin (TBT) on benthic organisms. At concentrations of 1-3 µg/l there was no significant effect on the abundance of Hediste diversicolor or Cirratulus cirratus after 9 weeks in a microcosm. However, no juvenile polychaetes were retrieved from the substratum suggesting that TBT had an effect on the larval and/or juvenile stages of these polychaetes. Bryan & Gibbs (1991) reported that Arenicola costata larvae were unaffected by 168 hr exposure to 2000 ng TBT/ l seawater and were probably relatively tolerant, however in another study, Scoloplos armiger exhibited a dose related decline in numbers when exposed to TBT paint particles in the sediment. Intolerance has been assessed to be intermediate owing to the fact that different chemicals are likely to have different modes of action and effect on different species of polychaete. Nephtys hombergii may demonstrate similar sensitivities as the species mentioned above but little evidence was found. Recoverability has been assessed to be high as recolonization is likely via adult migration and larval settlement. | ||||
Intermediate | High | Low | Moderate | |
Nephtys hombergii is recorded in Restronguet Creek, a branch of the Fal Estuary system which is heavily contaminated with metals. Concentrations of dissolved Zn typically range from 100-2000 µ g/l, Cu from 10-100 µg/l and Cd from 0.25-5.0 µg/l. The sediments of Restronguet Creek are also highly contaminated, the levels of Cu, Zn, As and Sn being in the order of 1500-3500 µg/g (Bryan & Gibbs, 1983). Analyses of organisms from Restronguet Creek revealed that some species contained abnormally high concentrations of heavy metals. Nephtys hombergii from the middle and lower reaches of the creek contained appreciably higher concentrations of Cu (2227 µg/g dry wt), Fe and Zn than comparable specimens of Hediste diversicolor (as Nereis diversicolor). However, amongst polychaetes within the creek, there was evidence that some metals were regulated. In Nephtys hombergii the head end of the worm became blackened and x-ray microanalysis by Bryan & Gibbs (1983) indicated that this was caused by the deposition of copper sulphide in the body wall. In the same study, Bryan & Gibbs (1983) presented evidence that Nephtys hombergii from Restronguet Creek possessed increased tolerance to copper contamination. Specimens from the Tamar Estuary had a 96 h LC50 of 250 µg/l, whilst those from Restronguet Creek had a 96 h LC50 of 700 µg/l (35 psu; 13°C). Bryan & Gibbs (1983) suggested that since the area had been heavily contaminated with metals for > 200 years, there had been adequate time for metal-resistant populations to develop especially for relatively mobile species. An intolerance assessment of intermediate has been suggested as it is likely that given time populations of the species may become tolerant of heavy metal pollution, but that in the short term acute exposure of heavy metals may be deleterious to populations not previously exposed. Recoverability has been assessed to be high as recolonization is likely via adult migration and larval settlement. | ||||
High | High | Moderate | Moderate | |
The 1969 West Falmouth Spill of Grade 2 diesel fuel, documented by Sanders (1978), illustrates the effects of hydrocarbons in a sheltered habitat with a soft mud/sand substrata (Suchanek, 1993). The entire benthic fauna was eradicated immediately following the spill and remobilization of oil that continued for a period >1 year after the spill contributed to much greater impact upon the habitat than that caused by the initial spill. Effects are likely to be prolonged as hydrocarbons incorporated within the sediment by bioturbation will remain for a long time owing to slow degradation under anoxic conditions. Oil covering the surface and within the sediment would prevent oxygen transport to the infauna and promote anoxia as the infauna utilise oxygen during respiration. Although Nephtys hombergii is relatively tolerant of hypoxia and periods of anoxia (see oxygenation), a prolonged absence of oxygen would probably result in the death of it and other infauna. McLusky (1982) found that petrochemical effluents, including organic solvents and ammonium salts, released from a point source to an estuarine intertidal mudflat of the Forth Estuary, Scotland, caused severe pollution in the immediate vicinity. Beyond 500 m distance the effluent contributed to an enrichment of the fauna in terms of abundance and biomass similar to that reported by Pearson & Rosenberg (1978) for organic pollution; Nephtys hombergii was found in the area with maximum abundance of species and highest total biomass at 500 m from the discharge. Intolerance has been assessed to be high as it seems likely that significant hydrocarbon contamination would kill affected populations of the species. On return to prior conditions recoverability has been assessed to be high as recolonization is likely via adult migration and larval settlement. | ||||
No information | Not relevant | No information | Not relevant | |
Insufficient information. | ||||
Low | Very high | Very Low | Moderate | |
Nephtys hombergii is unlikely to be directly affected by nutrient enrichment as growth is not dependent on nutrient availability. However, symptoms of eutrophication (when nutrient input may exceeds the assimilative capacity of the environment) include hypoxia, to which Nephtys hombergii may be intolerant over long episodes (see oxygenation below) but has been found tolerant of over short episodes. At the benchmark level an intolerance assessment of low has been suggested as in the long term species viability may be affected. Effects of deoxygenation are considered separately. Recoverability has been assessed to be very high. Dittman et al. (1999) observed that Nephtys hombergii was amongst the macrofauna that colonized experimentally disturbed tidal flats within two weeks of the disturbance that caused defaunation of the sediment. | ||||
Low | Very high | Very Low | Moderate | |
Nephtys hombergii is considered to be a brackish water species (Barnes, 1994) but where the species occurs in open coastal locations the species would have to tolerate salinities of 25 psu and above. Within a few months of the closure of a dam across the Krammer-Volkerak estuary in the Netherlands, Wolff (1971) observed that species with pelagic larvae or a free-swimming phase, expanded rapidly with a concomitant increase of salinity to 9-15 psu everywhere. Prior to the closure of the dam the estuary demonstrated characteristics of a typical 'salt-wedge' estuary with a salinity gradient from 0.3 to 15 psu. Hence, Nephtys hombergii is likely to survive increases in salinity within estuarine environments and intolerance has been assessed to be low. In fully saline locations Nephtys hombergii may still be found but, may be competitively inferior to other species of Nephtyidae (e.g. Nephtys ciliata and Nephtys hystricis) and occur in lower densities. On return to optimal conditions recoverability is likely to be very high as recolonization via adult migration is likely to be rapid. | ||||
Low | Very high | Very Low | Moderate | |
Nephtys hombergii is considered to be a brackish water species, and has been reported to extend in to estuarine locations where salinity is less than 18 psu (Barnes, 1994). Clark & Haderlie (1960) found Nephtys hombergii in the Bristol Channel at salinities between 15.9 psu and 25.1 psu. If the salinity were to become intolerable to the polychaete it is likely that as a mobile species, able to both swim and burrow, Nephtys hombergii would avoid the change in salinity by moving away and localized densities would decline. The species is unlikely to be killed by the decrease in salinity and intolerance has been assessed to be low. Recoverability has been assessed to be very high as recolonization would occur via adult migration and larval recruitment within the year. | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | High | |
Nephtys hombergii is a free-living, burrowing predator in marine sediments in which it has to survive periods of severe hypoxia and sulphide exposure, while at the same time maintaining agility in order to feed on other invertebrates. Nephtys hombergii has adapted to such conditions by utilising several strategies. Arndt & Schiedek (1997) found Nephtys hombergii to have a remarkably high content of phosphagen (phosphoglycocyamine), which is the primary energy source during periods of environmental stress. With increasing hypoxia, energy is also provided via anaerobic glycolysis, with strombine as the main end-product. Energy production via the succinate pathway becomes important only under severe hypoxia, suggesting a biphasic response to low oxygen conditions which probably is related to the polychaete's mode of life. The presence of sulphide resulted in a higher anaerobic energy flux and a more pronounced energy production via glycolysis than in anoxia alone. Nevertheless, after sulphide exposure under anaerobic conditions of <24 h, Arndt & Schiedek (1997) observed Nephtys hombergii to recover completely. Although Nephtys hombergii appears to be well adapted to a habitat with short-term fluctuations in oxygen and appearance of hydrogen sulphide, its high energy demand as a predator renders it likely to limit its survival in an environment with longer lasting anoxia and concomitant sulphide exposure. For instance, Fallesen & Jørgensen (1991) recorded Nephtys hombergii in localities in Århus Bay, Denmark, where oxygen concentrations were permanently or regularly low, but in the late summer of 1982 a severe oxygen deficiency killed populations of Nephtys species (Nephtys hombergii and Nephtys ciliata) in the lower part of the bay. However, Nephtys hombergii recolonized the affected area by the end of autumn the same year. Alheit (1978) reported a LC50 at 8°C of 23 days for Nephtys hombergii maintained under anaerobic conditions. Such evidence suggests that Nephtys hombergii would be tolerant of short episodes of oxygen deficiency and at the benchmark duration of one week Nephtys hombergii is unlikely to be adversely affected by hypoxic conditions and would revive on return to oxygenated sediment. At the benchmark level an assessment of not sensitive has been suggested. |
Intolerance | Recoverability | Sensitivity | Evidence/Confidence | |
No information | Not relevant | No information | Not relevant | |
Insufficient information | ||||
Tolerant | Not relevant | Not sensitive | Not relevant | |
No alien species are currently known to affect the viability of this species. | ||||
Intermediate | Very high | Low | Low | |
Nephtys hombergii is known as a 'catworm' amongst anglers who may dig sediments on a relatively small scale to obtain the species for fishing bait. Intolerance has been assessed to be intermediate as a proportion of the population would be removed. Recovery of Nephtys hombergii has been assessed to be very high as re-population would occur initially relatively rapidly via adult migration and later by larval recruitment. | ||||
High | Very high | Low | High | |
Commercially exploitable species such as Cerastoderma edule occur in the same habitat as Nephtys species. Shellfish of marketable size can be harvested both in the intertidal and subtidal more rapidly and efficiently using mechanical methods such as tractor-powered harvesters and suction dredgers than by traditional methods. Hydraulic suction dredgers operate by fluidising the sand using water jets and then lifting the sediment and infauna into a revolving drum for sorting. The tractor-towed dredge utilises a blade between 70 -100 cm wide that penetrates to a depth of between 20-40 cm. Sediment is sorted through a rotating drum cage (Hall & Harding, 1997). Such machinery adversely impacts on non-target infaunal species as they are sucked or displaced from the sediment and sustain damage as 'by-catch'. For instance, Ferns et al. (2000) recorded significant losses of common infaunal polychaetes from areas of intertidal muddy sand sediment worked with a tractor-towed cockle harvester: 31 % of the polychaete Scoloplos armiger (initial density of 120 m²) and 83 % of Pygospio elegans (initial density 1850 m²) were removed and bird feeding activity increased on harvested areas as gulls and waders took advantage of invertebrates made available. Intolerance of Nephtys hombergii has been assessed to be high as mortalities would occur. In the study by Ferns et al. (2000) the population of Pygospio elegans remained depleted for more than 100 days after harvesting, whilst those of Nephtys hombergii, Scoloplos armiger and Bathyporeia spp. were depleted for over 50 days. Recovery of Nephtys hombergii has been assessed to be very high as re-population would occur initially relatively rapidly via adult migration and later by larval recruitment. |
- no data -
National (GB) importance | - | Global red list (IUCN) category | - |
Native | - | ||
Origin | - | Date Arrived | - |
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This review can be cited as:
Last Updated: 26/10/2005