Common periwinkle (Littorina littorea)

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Summary

Description

This the largest British periwinkle, with the shell reaching a maximum height of 52 mm. The shell is sharply conical with a pointed apex and surface sculpturing. The spiral ridges which are marked in young animals tend to become obscured in older individuals, giving the shell a smooth appearance. The shell colour ranges from grey-black-brown-red but is generally black or dark grey-brown, often lighter towards the apex, and is usually patterned with spiral darker lines. The columella or central axis of the shell is typically white and the animal is recognizable in its juvenile stages by the transverse black barring of the tentacles which are rather flat and broad.

Recorded distribution in Britain and Ireland

Found on all British coasts, though rare or absent in the Isles of Scilly and Channel Isles.

Global distribution

Distributed from northern Spain to the White Sea (northern Russia).

Habitat

Littorina littorea is widely distributed on rocky coasts, in all except the most exposed areas, from the upper shore into the sublittoral. In sheltered conditions they can also be found in sandy or muddy habitats such as estuaries and mud-flats. The species is fairly tolerant of brackish water.

Depth range

60m

Identifying features

  • Shell solid, with 5 or 6 slightly tumid whorls; sutures shallow.
  • Spire prominent, pointed up to maximum height of 52 mm.
  • Shell smooth, especially in older specimens, but has prosocline growth lines and numerous, slight spiral ridges.
  • Outer lip of aperture tangential to body whorl; inner lip thick, reflected over base of columella; no spout or canal interrupts the apertural edge.
  • Generally black or dark grey-brown in colour, often lighter towards apex, with dark spiral lines.
  • Columella white.
  • Cephalic tentacles rather flat and broad, with many transverse black stripes.

Additional information

Also commonly known as the 'edible periwinkle'. Young animals with spiral ridges may be confused with Littorina saxatilis. During the breeding season, males are easily distinguished by the presence of a penis on the right-hand side of the body. The taxonomy of the Gastropoda has been recently revised (see Ponder & Lindberg 1997, and Taylor 1996). Ponder & Lindberg (1997) suggest that Mesogastropoda should be included in a monophyletic clade, the Caenogastropoda. See Reid (1996) for a comprehensive review of the systematics and evolution of Littorina littorea.

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Further information sources

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Biology review

Taxonomy

LevelScientific nameCommon name
PhylumMollusca
ClassGastropoda
OrderLittorinimorpha
FamilyLittorinidae
GenusLittorina
Authority(Linnaeus, 1758)
Recent Synonyms

Biology

ParameterData
Typical abundanceModerate density
Male size range<30mm
Male size at maturity10-12mm
Female size range10-12mm
Female size at maturity
Growth formTurbinate
Growth rate0.065-0.097mm/day
Body flexibilityNone (less than 10 degrees)
MobilityCreeper
Characteristic feeding methodGrazer
Diet/food source
Typically feeds ona range of fine green, brown and red algae, including Ulva lactuca, Ulva spp., Cladophora spp. and Ectocarpus spp.
SociabilityGregarious
Environmental positionEpifaunal
DependencyIndependent.
SupportsHost

Trematodes such as Cryptocotyle lingua, Himasthla leptosoma, Renicola roscovita and Ceracaria lebourae.

Is the species harmful?No

Biology information

Size and growth rate measurements apply to shell height. Most work suggests that maturity is reached at between 10-12mm shell height. Littorina littorea has various biochemical adaptations that allow the stressful intertidal habitat to be exploited. The species tends to aggregate and form clusters in areas that are more favourable for them, such as rock pools, rather than drier areas. Males are believed to mature earlier than females but females mature at a smaller size. Animals are more active when submerged due to the lower cost of moving on mucus when under water.

Habitat preferences

ParameterData
Physiographic preferencesOpen coast, Estuary
Biological zone preferencesLower eulittoral, Mid eulittoral, Sublittoral fringe, Upper eulittoral
Substratum / habitat preferencesBedrock, Cobbles, Gravel / shingle, Large to very large boulders, Mud, Muddy gravel, Muddy sand, Pebbles, Salt marsh, Sandy mud, Small boulders
Tidal strength preferencesModerately strong 1 to 3 knots (0.5-1.5 m/sec.), Strong 3 to 6 knots (1.5-3 m/sec.), Very weak (negligible), Weak < 1 knot (<0.5 m/sec.)
Wave exposure preferencesExtremely sheltered, Moderately exposed, Sheltered, Ultra sheltered, Very sheltered
Salinity preferencesFull (30-40 psu), Reduced (18-30 psu), Variable (18-40 psu)
Depth range60m
Other preferencesNo text entered
Migration PatternSeasonal (environment)

Habitat Information

  • The species is found most commonly on the lower shore and shallow subtidal but in ideal conditions may be found up to the high tide line. However, the lower limit is poorly defined and will depend on factors such as predation, latitude etc. Therefore, the species may be found in the infra- and circalittoral zones. However, in deeper water the species is only found as isolated individuals in very low densities.
  • At least in northern Britain Littorina littorea migrates down shore as temperatures fall in autumn (to reduce exposure to sub-zero temperatures) and up shore as temperatures rise in spring; migration depends on local winter temperatures. When exposed to the air, the species usually remains inactive unless conditions are very moist.

Life history

Adult characteristics

ParameterData
Reproductive typeGonochoristic (dioecious)
Reproductive frequency Annual episodic
Fecundity (number of eggs)10,000-100,000
Generation time2-5 years
Age at maturity2-3 years.
SeasonFebruary - June
Life span5-10 years

Larval characteristics

ParameterData
Larval/propagule type-
Larval/juvenile development Planktotrophic
Duration of larval stage11-30 days
Larval dispersal potential Greater than 10 km
Larval settlement periodInsufficient information

Life history information

This species can breed throughout the year but the length and timing of the breeding period are extremely dependent on climatic conditions. Also, estuaries provide a more nutritious environment than the open coast (Fish, 1972). Sexes are separate, and fertilisation is internal. Littorina littorea sheds egg capsules directly into the sea. Egg capsules are about 1mm across and each biconvex capsule can contain up to nine eggs but normally there are only two or three eggs per capsule. Egg release is synchronized with spring tides. In estuaries the population matures earlier in the year and maximum spawning occurs in January. Fecundity value is up to 100,000 for a large female (27mm shell height) per year. Eggs are released on several separate occasions. Female fecundity increases with size. Larval settling time or pelagic phase can be up to six weeks. Males prefer to breed with larger, more fecund females. Parasitism by trematodes may cause sterility.

Sensitivity reviewHow is sensitivity assessed?

Physical pressures

Use / to open/close text displayed

 IntoleranceRecoverabilitySensitivityEvidence / Confidence
Substratum loss [Show more]

Substratum loss

Benchmark. All of the substratum occupied by the species or biotope under consideration is removed. A single event is assumed for sensitivity assessment. Once the activity or event has stopped (or between regular events) suitable substratum remains or is deposited. Species or community recovery assumes that the substratum within the habitat preferences of the original species or community is present. Further details

Evidence

The species is epifaunal so loss of the substratum would also result in loss of the population. The species is widespread and often common or abundant. Adults are slow crawlers so active immigration of snails is unlikely. Recolonization may occur through rafting of adults on floating wood or weed. The eggs and larvae form the main mode of dispersal. Littorina littorea is an iteroparous breeder with high fecundity that lives for several (at least 4) years. Breeding can occur throughout the year. The planktonic larval stage is long (up to 6 weeks) although larvae do tend to remain in waters close to the shore. Recolonization, recruitment and recovery rates should be high.
High High Moderate Low
Smothering [Show more]

Smothering

Benchmark. All of the population of a species or an area of a biotope is smothered by sediment to a depth of 5 cm above the substratum for one month. Impermeable materials, such as concrete, oil, or tar, are likely to have a greater effect. Further details.

Evidence

Smothering by 5 cm of sediment is highly likely to cause death. On smothering, if the snails cannot regain the surface then death normally occurs within 24 hours (Chandrasekara & Frid, 1998). If the sediment is well oxygenated and fluid (as with high water, high silt content) snails may be able to move back up through the sediment. Littorina littorea is much more intolerant of smothering than Hydrobia ulvae (Chandrasekara & Frid, 1998). The species is widespread and often common or abundant. Adults are slow crawlers so active immigration of snails is unlikely. Recolonization may occur through rafting of adults on floating wood or weed. The eggs and larvae form the main mode of dispersal. Littorina littorea is an iteroparous breeder with high fecundity that lives for several (at least 4) years. Breeding can occur throughout the year. The planktonic larval stage is long (up to 6 weeks) although larvae do tend to remain in waters close to the shore. Recolonization, recruitment and recovery rates should be high.
High High Moderate High
Increase in suspended sediment [Show more]

Increase in suspended sediment

Benchmark. An arbitrary short-term, acute change in background suspended sediment concentration e.g., a change of 100 mg/l for one month. The resultant light attenuation effects are addressed under turbidity, and the effects of rapid settling out of suspended sediment are addressed under smothering. Further details

Evidence

Increases in siltation for a year may have some influence in changing substratum type and removing available habitat such as nooks and crevices. If habitat type is no longer optimal then the snail population may decrease. Adults are slow crawlers so active immigration of snails is unlikely. The eggs and larvae form the main mode of dispersal. Littorina littorea is an iteroparous breeder with high fecundity that lives for several (at least 4) years. Breeding can occur throughout the year. The planktonic larval stage is long (up to 6 weeks) although larvae do tend to remain in waters close to the shore. Recruitment and recovery rates should be high.
Intermediate High Low Low
Decrease in suspended sediment [Show more]

Decrease in suspended sediment

Benchmark. An arbitrary short-term, acute change in background suspended sediment concentration e.g., a change of 100 mg/l for one month. The resultant light attenuation effects are addressed under turbidity, and the effects of rapid settling out of suspended sediment are addressed under smothering. Further details

Evidence

 No information
Desiccation [Show more]

Desiccation

  1. A normally subtidal, demersal or pelagic species including intertidal migratory or under-boulder species is continuously exposed to air and sunshine for one hour.
  2. A normally intertidal species or community is exposed to a change in desiccation equivalent to a change in position of one vertical biological zone on the shore, e.g., from upper eulittoral to the mid eulittoral or from sublittoral fringe to lower eulittoral for a period of one year. Further details.

Evidence

The species is typically intertidal and in ideal conditions may be found up to the high tide level. During exposure to the air, feeding and locomotion are halted unless conditions are very damp. The species is tolerant of long periods (several hours) of exposure to the air. For longer periods of exposure to desiccating influences, a dried mucus seal forms around the shell aperture reducing evaporation. Littorina littorea has the ability to determine its position on the shore relative to the preferred zone, can orient itself in this direction and move into more suitable conditions. It demonstrates behavioural adaptations to desiccation, seeking out damp crevices and forming gregarious aggregations to reduce evaporative loss.
Low Immediate Not sensitive High
Increase in emergence regime [Show more]

Increase in emergence regime

Benchmark. A one hour change in the time covered or not covered by the sea for a period of one year. Further details

Evidence

The species has the ability to determine its position on the shore relative to the preferred zone, can orient itself in this direction, is mobile, and demonstrates behavioural adaptations to avoid the increased risk of desiccation resulting from increased emergence. Conversely decreased emergence will extend the species range further up the shore. Changes in emergence regime may affect the extent and abundance of the macroalgae on which Littorina littorea feeds. However, this species can consume a wide variety of algal species and it unlikely to be adversely affected by changes in emergence at the benchmark level.
Low Immediate Not sensitive High
Decrease in emergence regime [Show more]

Decrease in emergence regime

Benchmark. A one hour change in the time covered or not covered by the sea for a period of one year. Further details

Evidence

 No information
Increase in water flow rate [Show more]

Increase in water flow rate

A change of two categories in water flow rate (view glossary) for 1 year, for example, from moderately strong (1-3 knots) to very weak (negligible). Further details

Evidence

The species is found in areas with water flow rates from negligible to strong. Increases in water flow rates above 6 knots may cause snails in less protected locations (e.g. not in crevices etc) to be continually displaced into unsuitable habitat. Decreases in flow rate are not likely to have any effect. Adults are slow crawlers so active immigration of snails is unlikely. The eggs and larvae form the main mode of dispersal. Littorina littorea is an iteroparous breeder with high fecundity that lives for several (at least 4) years. Breeding can occur throughout the year. The planktonic larval stage is long (up to 6 weeks) although larvae do tend to remain in waters close to the shore. Recruitment and recovery rates should be high.
Intermediate High Low Low
Decrease in water flow rate [Show more]

Decrease in water flow rate

A change of two categories in water flow rate (view glossary) for 1 year, for example, from moderately strong (1-3 knots) to very weak (negligible). Further details

Evidence

 No information
Increase in temperature [Show more]

Increase in temperature

  1. A short-term, acute change in temperature; e.g., a 5°C change in the temperature range for three consecutive days. This definition includes ‘short-term’ thermal discharges.
  2. A long-term, chronic change in temperature; e.g. a 2°C change in the temperature range for a year. This definition includes ‘long term’ thermal discharges.

For intertidal species or communities, the range of temperatures includes the air temperature regime for that species or community. Further details

Evidence

Littorina littorea is a hardy intertidal species and can tolerate long periods of exposure to the air and consequently wide variations in temperature. Adult snails can easily tolerate sub-zero temperatures and the freezing of over 50 % of their extracellular body fluids. In colder conditions an active migration may occur down the shore to a zone where exposure time to the air (and hence time in freezing temperatures) is less. The snails are able to tolerate these low temperatures by drastically reducing their metabolic rate (down to 20 % of normal). Long term chronic temperature decreases may slow down growth. In restricted laboratory conditions, high temperatures have been observed to cause death. The species survives in upper shore rockpools where temperature may exceed 30 °C. At water temperatures above about 20 °C growth rate is reduced. In the British Isles sea water temperatures do not get this high. The species distribution extends south from the British Isles where temperatures are higher. Normal metabolic rate can be re-established rapidly on return to better conditions.
Low Immediate Not sensitive Moderate
Decrease in temperature [Show more]

Decrease in temperature

  1. A short-term, acute change in temperature; e.g., a 5°C change in the temperature range for three consecutive days. This definition includes ‘short-term’ thermal discharges.
  2. A long-term, chronic change in temperature; e.g. a 2°C change in the temperature range for a year. This definition includes ‘long term’ thermal discharges.

For intertidal species or communities, the range of temperatures includes the air temperature regime for that species or community. Further details

Evidence

 No information
Increase in turbidity [Show more]

Increase in turbidity

  1. A short-term, acute change; e.g., two categories of the water clarity scale (see glossary) for one month, such as from medium to extreme turbidity.
  2. A long-term, chronic change; e.g., one category of the water clarity scale (see glossary) for one year, such as from low to medium turbidity. Further details

Evidence

Changes in turbidity will probably have little direct effect on the snails. Some populations live in estuaries where turbidity tends to be high. Littorina littorea feeds mainly on algae and increased turbidity may reduce the photosynthetic capability of this algae and decrease food availability. Reduced food availability may reduce growth rates and reproductive capacity. Decreases in turbidity are unlikely to have any effect. Once feeding resumes individuals can return to normal.
Low Very high Very Low Low
Decrease in turbidity [Show more]

Decrease in turbidity

  1. A short-term, acute change; e.g., two categories of the water clarity scale (see glossary) for one month, such as from medium to extreme turbidity.
  2. A long-term, chronic change; e.g., one category of the water clarity scale (see glossary) for one year, such as from low to medium turbidity. Further details

Evidence

 No information
Increase in wave exposure [Show more]

Increase in wave exposure

A change of two ranks on the wave exposure scale (view glossary) e.g., from Exposed to Extremely exposed for a period of one year. Further details

Evidence

On exposed shores individuals may be dislodged or damaged. Littorina littorea regularly have to abandon optimal feeding sites in order to avoid wave-induced dislodgement. This will result in a decreased growth rate (Mouritsen et al., 1999). Increases in wave exposure will probably cause a decrease in population size. Decreases in wave exposure are unlikely to have any effect. Adults are slow crawlers so active immigration of snails is unlikely. The eggs and larvae form the main mode of dispersal. Littorina littorea is an iteroparous breeder with high fecundity that lives for several (at least 4) years. Breeding can occur throughout the year. The planktonic larval stage is long (up to 6 weeks) although larvae do tend to remain in waters close to the shore. Recruitment and recovery rates should be high.
Intermediate High Low Moderate
Decrease in wave exposure [Show more]

Decrease in wave exposure

A change of two ranks on the wave exposure scale (view glossary) e.g., from Exposed to Extremely exposed for a period of one year. Further details

Evidence

 No information
Noise [Show more]

Noise

  1. Underwater noise levels e.g., the regular passing of a 30-metre trawler at 100 metres or a working cutter-suction transfer dredge at 100 metres for one month during important feeding or breeding periods.
  2. Atmospheric noise levels e.g., the regular passing of a Boeing 737 passenger jet 300 metres overhead for one month during important feeding or breeding periods. Further details

Evidence

This species probably has limited facility for noise vibration detection and as such is unlikely to be sensitive to noise.
Tolerant Not relevant Not sensitive Low
Visual presence [Show more]

Visual presence

Benchmark. The continuous presence for one month of moving objects not naturally found in the marine environment (e.g., boats, machinery, and humans) within the visual envelope of the species or community under consideration. Further details

Evidence

Although the species has eyes, visual perception is probably quite limited and as such the species is unlikely to be sensitive to visual presence.
Tolerant Not relevant Not sensitive Low
Abrasion & physical disturbance [Show more]

Abrasion & physical disturbance

Benchmark. Force equivalent to a standard scallop dredge landing on or being dragged across the organism. A single event is assumed for assessment. This factor includes mechanical interference, crushing, physical blows against, or rubbing and erosion of the organism or habitat of interest. Where trampling is relevant, the evidence and trampling intensity will be reported in the rationale. Further details.

Evidence

The species is small and the shell is quite thick, particularly in older individuals. Abrasion may cause damage to the shell. Damaged shells may make the snail more prone to desiccation. The snail is able to repair damage to the lip of the shell. The annual life cycle, high fecundity and long planktonic larval stage means that successful recruitment from other populations is quite likely.
Intermediate High Low Low
Displacement [Show more]

Displacement

Benchmark. Removal of the organism from the substratum and displacement from its original position onto a suitable substratum. A single event is assumed for assessment. Further details

Evidence

The species is mobile, moving around on the shore to feed. Displacement will have no effect.
Tolerant Not relevant Not sensitive High

Chemical pressures

Use [show more] / [show less] to open/close text displayed

 IntoleranceRecoverabilitySensitivityEvidence / Confidence
Synthetic compound contamination [Show more]

Synthetic compound contamination

Sensitivity is assessed against the available evidence for the effects of contaminants on the species (or closely related species at low confidence) or community of interest. For example:

  • evidence of mass mortality of a population of the species or community of interest (either short or long term) in response to a contaminant will be ranked as high sensitivity;
  • evidence of reduced abundance, or extent of a population of the species or community of interest (either short or long term) in response to a contaminant will be ranked as intermediate sensitivity;
  • evidence of sub-lethal effects or reduced reproductive potential of a population of the species or community of interest will be assessed as low sensitivity.

The evidence used is stated in the rationale. Where the assessment can be based on a known activity then this is stated. The tolerance to contaminants of species of interest will be included in the rationale when available; together with relevant supporting material. Further details.

Evidence

Littorina littorea is tolerant of high TBT levels (Oehlmann et al., 1998) and has been found to be well suited for TBT effect monitoring because the species exists in sufficient numbers for sampling even in regions where a relatively high level of contamination exists. It is often present in areas where the very TBT sensitive dogwhelk Nucella lapillus has disappeared. Although imposex is rare in Littorina littorea strong TBT-toxication may affect a population significantly by reducing reproductive ability (Deutsch & Fioroni, 1996) through the development of intersex. Intersex is defined as a change in the female pallial oviduct towards a male morphological structure (Bauer et al., 1995). However, only sexually immature and juvenile individuals of Littorina littorea are able to develop intersex. Also, owing to the reproductive strategy of Littorina littorea, which reproduces by means of pelagic larvae, populations do not necessarily become extinct as a result of intersex (Casey et al, 1998) and so recoverability is good. It may take some time for the toxicant to be eliminated from the system and conditions to return to normal.
Low Very high Very Low Moderate
Heavy metal contamination [Show more]

Heavy metal contamination

Evidence

Most of the information available suggests that adult gastropod molluscs are rather tolerant of heavy-metal toxicity (Bryan, 1984). Winkles may absorb metals from the surrounding water by absorption across the gills or from the diet, and evidence from experimental studies on Littorina littorea suggest that the diet is the most important source (Bryanet al., 1983). The species has been suggested as a suitable bioindicator species for some heavy metals in the marine environment. Bryan et al. (1983) suggests that the species is a reasonable indicator for Ag, Cd, Pb and perhaps As. It is not found to be a reliable indicator for other metals because of some interactions between metals and regulation of some, such as Cu and Zn (Langston & Zhou Mingjiang, 1986). The lethal dose of mercury (as mercury chloride) is between 1 and 10 ppm of seawater (Staines Web page). This stems mainly from its ability to accumulate trace elements and compounds and consequential behavioural changes. The eggs and larvae form the main mode of dispersal. Littorina littorea is an iteroparous breeder with high fecundity that lives for several (at least 4) years. Breeding can occur throughout the year. The planktonic larval stage is long (up to 6 weeks) although larvae do tend to remain in waters close to the shore. Recruitment and recovery rates should be high. Adults are slow crawlers so active immigration of snails is unlikely.
Intermediate High Low High
Hydrocarbon contamination [Show more]

Hydrocarbon contamination

Evidence

Experience of and observations from oil spills such as the Sea Empress and Amoco Cadiz suggest that gastropod molluscs are highly intolerant of hydrocarbon pollution. Recovery though is usually rapid. The species is widespread and often common or abundant. Adults are slow crawlers so active immigration of snails is unlikely. Recolonization may occur through rafting of adults on floating wood or weed. The larvae form the main mode of dispersal. Littorina littorea is an iteroparous breeder with high fecundity that lives for several (at least 4) years. Breeding can occur throughout the year. The planktonic larval stage is long (up to 6 weeks) although larvae do tend to remain in waters close to the shore. Recolonization, recruitment and recovery rates should be high.
High High Moderate Moderate
Radionuclide contamination [Show more]

Radionuclide contamination

Evidence

Insufficient
information.
No information No information No information Not relevant
Changes in nutrient levels [Show more]

Changes in nutrient levels

Evidence

The species occurs on all British and Irish coasts, including lower salinity areas such as estuaries where nutrient loading is likely to be higher than elsewhere. Higher nutrient levels may benefit the algal substrata and food used by the snail.
Tolerant Not relevant Not sensitive Low
Increase in salinity [Show more]

Increase in salinity

  1. A short-term, acute change; e.g., a change of two categories from the MNCR salinity scale for one week (view glossary) such as from full to reduced.
  2. A long-term, chronic change; e.g., a change of one category from the MNCR salinity scale for one year (view glossary) such as from reduced to low. Further details.

Evidence

This species is found in waters of full, variable and reduced salinities. It is also an intertidal species where precipitation can cause exposure to low salinity water. Changes in salinity are unlikely to have an effect.
Tolerant Not relevant Not sensitive Low
Decrease in salinity [Show more]

Decrease in salinity

  1. A short-term, acute change; e.g., a change of two categories from the MNCR salinity scale for one week (view glossary) such as from full to reduced.
  2. A long-term, chronic change; e.g., a change of one category from the MNCR salinity scale for one year (view glossary) such as from reduced to low. Further details.

Evidence

 No information
Changes in oxygenation [Show more]

Changes in oxygenation

Benchmark.  Exposure to a dissolved oxygen concentration of 2 mg/l for one week. Further details.

Evidence

Littorina littorea can endure long periods of oxygen deprivation. The snails can tolerate anoxia by drastically reducing their metabolic rate (down to 20 percent of normal).(MacDonald & Storey, 1999). However, this reduces feeding rate and thus the viability of a population may be reduced. Normal metabolic rate and feeding can be re-established rapidly on return to better conditions.
Low Very high Very Low Moderate

Biological pressures

Use [show more] / [show less] to open/close text displayed

 IntoleranceRecoverabilitySensitivityEvidence / Confidence
Introduction of microbial pathogens/parasites [Show more]

Introduction of microbial pathogens/parasites

Benchmark. Sensitivity can only be assessed relative to a known, named disease, likely to cause partial loss of a species population or community. Further details.

Evidence

Insufficient
information
No information No information No information Not relevant
Introduction of non-native species [Show more]

Introduction of non-native species

Sensitivity assessed against the likely effect of the introduction of alien or non-native species in Britain or Ireland. Further details.

Evidence

Insufficient
information
No information No information No information Not relevant
Extraction of this species [Show more]

Extraction of this species

Benchmark. Extraction removes 50% of the species or community from the area under consideration. Sensitivity will be assessed as 'intermediate'. The habitat remains intact or recovers rapidly. Any effects of the extraction process on the habitat itself are addressed under other factors, e.g. displacement, abrasion and physical disturbance, and substratum loss. Further details.

Evidence

This species is harvested by hand, without regulation, for human consumption. In some areas, notably Ireland, collectors have noted a reduction in the number of large snails available. Adults are slow crawlers so active immigration of snails is unlikely. The larvae form the main mode of dispersal. Littorina littorea is an iteroparous breeder with high fecundity that lives for several (at least 4) years. Breeding can occur throughout the year. The planktonic larval stage is long (up to 6 weeks) although larvae do tend to remain in waters close to the shore. Recruitment and recovery rates should be high.
Intermediate High Low Moderate
Extraction of other species [Show more]

Extraction of other species

Benchmark. A species that is a required host or prey for the species under consideration (and assuming that no alternative host exists) or a keystone species in a biotope is removed. Any effects of the extraction process on the habitat itself are addressed under other factors, e.g. displacement, abrasion and physical disturbance, and substratum loss. Further details.

Evidence

Adult Littorina littorea have no known obligate relationships.
Tolerant Not relevant Not sensitive Low

Additional information

Importance review

Policy/legislation

- no data -

Status

Non-native

ParameterData
Native-
Origin-
Date Arrived-

Importance information

  • Littorina littorea is often the dominant grazing gastropod on the lower shore. The species has some commercial value and is gathered by hand at a number of localities, particularly in Scotland and in Ireland where the industry is valued at around £5 million per year. Demand increases considerably over Christmas from the French market (CRC Web site).
  • The species has been suggested as a highly suitable bioindicator species for contamination of the marine environment. This stems mainly from its ability to accumulate trace elements and compounds and consequential behavioural changes.

Bibliography

  1. Bauer, B., Fioroni, P., Ide, I., Liebe, S., Oehlmann, J., Stroben, E. & Watermann, B., 1995. TBT effects on the female genital system of Littorina littorea: a possible indicator of tributyl tin pollution. Hydrobiologia, 309, 15-27.

  2. Bryan, G.W., 1984. Pollution due to heavy metals and their compounds. In Marine Ecology: A Comprehensive, Integrated Treatise on Life in the Oceans and Coastal Waters, vol. 5. Ocean Management, part 3, (ed. O. Kinne), pp.1289-1431. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

  3. Campbell, A., 1994. Seashores and shallow seas of Britain and Europe. London: Hamlyn.

  4. Casey, J.D., De Grave, S. & Burnell, G.M., 1998. Intersex and Littorina littorea in Cork Harbour: results of a medium-term monitoring programme. Hydrobiologia, 378, 193-197.

  5. Chandrasekara, W.U. & Frid, C.L.J., 1998. A laboratory assessment of the survival and vertical movement of two epibenthic gastropod species, Hydrobia ulvae, (Pennant) and Littorina littorea (Linnaeus), after burial in sediment. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 221, 191-207.

  6. Davies, M.S. & Beckwith, P., 1999. Role of mucus trails and trail-following in the behaviour and nutrition of the periwinkle Littorina littorea Marine Ecology Progress Series, 179, 247-257.

  7. Deutsch, U. & Fioroni, P., 1996. Effects of tributyltin (TBT) and testosterone on the female genital system in the mesogastropod Littorina littorea (Prosobranchia). Helgolander Meeresuntersuchungen, 50, 105-115.

  8. English, T.E., Storey, K.B., 1998. Gene up-regulation in response to anoxia or freezing stresses in the marine snail, Littorina littorea. http://www.mcmaster.ca/inabis98/oxidative/english0445/, 2000-05-17

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Datasets

  1. Bristol Regional Environmental Records Centre, 2017. BRERC species records recorded over 15 years ago. Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/h1ln5p accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-09-25.

  2. Centre for Environmental Data and Recording, 2018. IBIS Project Data. Occurrence dataset: https://www.nmni.com/CEDaR/CEDaR-Centre-for-Environmental-Data-and-Recording.aspx accessed via NBNAtlas.org on 2018-09-25.

  3. Centre for Environmental Data and Recording, 2018. Ulster Museum Marine Surveys of Northern Ireland Coastal Waters. Occurrence dataset https://www.nmni.com/CEDaR/CEDaR-Centre-for-Environmental-Data-and-Recording.aspx accessed via NBNAtlas.org on 2018-09-25.

  4. Cofnod – North Wales Environmental Information Service, 2018. Miscellaneous records held on the Cofnod database. Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/hcgqsi accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-09-25.

  5. Conchological Society of Great Britain & Ireland, 2018. Mollusc (marine) data for Great Britain and Ireland - restricted access. Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/4bsawx accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-09-25.

  6. Conchological Society of Great Britain & Ireland, 2023. Mollusc (marine) records for Great Britain and Ireland. Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/aurwcz accessed via GBIF.org on 2024-09-27.

  7. Environmental Records Information Centre North East, 2018. ERIC NE Combined dataset to 2017. Occurrence dataset: http://www.ericnortheast.org.ukl accessed via NBNAtlas.org on 2018-09-38

  8. Fenwick, 2018. Aphotomarine. Occurrence dataset http://www.aphotomarine.com/index.html Accessed via NBNAtlas.org on 2018-10-01

  9. Fife Nature Records Centre, 2018. St Andrews BioBlitz 2014. Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/erweal accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-09-27.

  10. Fife Nature Records Centre, 2018. St Andrews BioBlitz 2015. Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/xtrbvy accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-09-27.

  11. Fife Nature Records Centre, 2018. St Andrews BioBlitz 2016. Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/146yiz accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-09-27.

  12. Kent Wildlife Trust, 2018. Biological survey of the intertidal chalk reefs between Folkestone Warren and Kingsdown, Kent 2009-2011. Occurrence dataset: https://www.kentwildlifetrust.org.uk/ accessed via NBNAtlas.org on 2018-10-01.

  13. Kent Wildlife Trust, 2018. Kent Wildlife Trust Shoresearch Intertidal Survey 2004 onwards. Occurrence dataset: https://www.kentwildlifetrust.org.uk/ accessed via NBNAtlas.org on 2018-10-01.

  14. Lancashire Environment Record Network, 2018. LERN Records. Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/esxc9a accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-10-01.

  15. Manx Biological Recording Partnership, 2017. Isle of Man wildlife records from 01/01/2000 to 13/02/2017. Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/mopwow accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-10-01.

  16. Manx Biological Recording Partnership, 2018. Isle of Man historical wildlife records 1995 to 1999. Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/lo2tge accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-10-01.

  17. Merseyside BioBank., 2018. Merseyside BioBank (unverified). Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/iou2ld accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-10-01.

  18. Merseyside BioBank., 2018. Merseyside BioBank Active Naturalists (unverified). Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/smzyqf accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-10-01.

  19. National Trust, 2017. National Trust Species Records. Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/opc6g1 accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-10-01.

  20. NBN (National Biodiversity Network) Atlas. Available from: https://www.nbnatlas.org.

  21. Norfolk Biodiversity Information Service, 2017. NBIS Records to December 2016. Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/jca5lo accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-10-01.

  22. OBIS (Ocean Biodiversity Information System),  2024. Global map of species distribution using gridded data. Available from: Ocean Biogeographic Information System. www.iobis.org. Accessed: 2024-12-22

  23. Outer Hebrides Biological Recording, 2018. Invertebrates (except insects), Outer Hebrides. Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/hpavud accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-10-01.

  24. South East Wales Biodiversity Records Centre, 2018. SEWBReC Molluscs (South East Wales). Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/jos5ga accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-10-02.

  25. South East Wales Biodiversity Records Centre, 2018. Dr Mary Gillham Archive Project. Occurance dataset: http://www.sewbrec.org.uk/ accessed via NBNAtlas.org on 2018-10-02

  26. Suffolk Biodiversity Information Service., 2017. Suffolk Biodiversity Information Service (SBIS) Dataset. Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/ab4vwo accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-10-02.

  27. The Wildlife Information Centre, 2018. TWIC Biodiversity Field Trip Data (1995-present). Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/ljc0ke accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-10-02.

  28. Yorkshire Wildlife Trust, 2018. Yorkshire Wildlife Trust Shoresearch. Occurrence dataset: https://doi.org/10.15468/1nw3ch accessed via GBIF.org on 2018-10-02.

Citation

This review can be cited as:

Jackson, A. 2008. Littorina littorea Common periwinkle. In Tyler-Walters H. Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Reviews, [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. [cited 22-12-2024]. Available from: https://marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1328

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Last Updated: 29/05/2008