The Marine Life Information Network

Temperature increase (local)

Benchmark. A 5°C increase in temperature for one month, or 2°C for one year. Further detail

Evidence

Intertidal species are exposed to extremes of high and low air temperatures during periods of emersion. They must also be able to cope with sharp temperature fluctuations over a short period of time during the tidal cycle. In winter air temperatures are colder than the sea, conversely in summer air temperatures are much warmer than the sea. Species that occur in the intertidal are therefore generally adapted to tolerate a range of temperatures, with the width of the thermal niche positively correlated with the height of the shore that the animal usually occurs at (Davenport & Davenport, 2005).

At Great Cumbrae, the median upper lethal temperature limit in laboratory tests on Semibalanus balanoides was approximately 35°C (Davenport & Davenport, 2005). Although adults may be able to withstand acute and chronic increases in temperature at the pressure benchmark, increased temperatures may have sub-lethal effects on the population by impacting the success of reproduction phases. The distribution of both the key characterizing species, Semibalanus balanoides and Patella vulgata are 'northern' with their range extending from Portugal or Northern Spain to the Arctic circle. Populations in the southern part of England are therefore relatively close to the southern edge of their geographic range. 

Long-term time series show that successful recruitment of Semibalanus balanoides is correlated to sea temperatures (Mieszkowska et al., 2014) and that due to recent warming its range has been contracting northwards. Temperatures above 10 to 12°C inhibit reproduction (Barnes, 1957, 1963; Crisp & Patel, 1969) and laboratory studies suggest that temperatures at or below 10°C for 4-6 weeks are required in winter for reproduction, although the precise threshold temperatures for reproduction are not clear (Rognstad et al., 2014). Observations of recruitment success in Semibalanus balanoides throughout the south west of England, strongly support the hypothesis that an extended period (4-6 weeks) of sea temperatures <10°C is required to ensure a good supply of larvae (Rognstad et al., 2014, Jenkins et al., 2000). During periods of high reproductive success, linked to cooler temperatures, the range of barnacles has been observed to increase, with range extensions in the order of 25 km (Wethey et al., 2011), and 100 km (Rognstad et al., 2014). Increased temperatures are likely to favour chthamalid barnacles rather than Semibalanus balanoides (Southward et al., 1995). Chthamalus montagui and Chthamalus stellatus are warm water species, with a northern limit of distribution in Britain so are likely to be tolerant of long-term increases in temperature. Similarly, the limpet Patella depressa is a southern species and is therefore considered more tolerant of increased temperature. Thus, an increase in temperature over longer timescales could lead to a change in the dominant species of barnacle and limpet, particularly in more southern regions.

The body temperature of Patella vulgata can exceed 36°C in the field, (Davies, 1970), adults become non-responsive at 37-38°C and die at temperatures of 42°C (Evans, 1948).  Lower temperatures enhance feeding rates in adults (Thompson et al., 2004). Juvenile tolerance of warm air temperatures and desiccation may be lower than adults. Juveniles require damp areas of rock (Lewis & Bowmna, 1975) and the bare rock surfaces typical of this biotope, present a harsher habitat than the associated crevices and cracks. Long-term time studies in southern England suggest that Patella vulgata has become scarcer following warmer summers, while Patella depressa increase in abundance (Southward et al., 1995). Increased temperatures may alter spawning cues and reproduction success in Patella vulgata populations. Observations suggest that spawning is initiated in autumn storms with greater wave action when seawater temperatures drop below 12°C (Bowman 1985; Bowman & Lewis, 1986; LeQuesne, 2005). In northern Portugal, warming seas appear to be linked to a shortening of the reproductive period and the lack of multiple spawning events in Patella vulgata and other northern species (Ribeiro et al., 2009).

Most of the other species within the biotope are eurythermal (e.g. Nucella lapillus and Mytilus edulis) and are hardy intertidal species that tolerate long periods of exposure to the air and consequently wide variations in temperature (Davenport & Davenport, 2005). In addition, most species are distributed to the north and south of the British Isles and unlikely to be adversely affected by long-term temperature changes at the benchmark level. Corallina officinalis, however, experienced severe damage during the unusually hot summer of 1983 (Hawkins & Hartnoll, 1985).

Sensitivity assessment. Adult Semibalanus balanoides and Patella vulgata are considered likely to be able to tolerate an acute or chronic change, however, if an acute change in temperature occurred in autumn or winter it could disrupt reproduction, while a chronic change could alter reproductive success if it exceeded thermal thresholds for reproduction. The effects would depend on the magnitude, duration and footprint of the activities leading to this pressure. However, barnacle populations are highly connected, with a good larval supply and high dispersal potential (Wethey et al., 2011, Rognstad et al., 2014).  Similarly, Patella vulgata is common, widespread species and therefore larvae are likely to be supplied by local populations to counteract local reproductive failures.  Resistance is therefore assessed as ‘High’ and resilience as ‘High’ (by default). This biotope is therefore considered to be ‘Not sensitive’ at the pressure benchmark. Sensitivity to longer-term, broad-scale perturbations such as increased temperatures from climate change would, however, be greater, based on the extent of impact and the reduction in larval supply.

Temperature decrease (local)

Benchmark. A 5°C decrease in temperature for one month, or 2°C for one year. Further detail

Evidence

Many intertidal species are tolerant of freezing conditions as they are exposed to extremes of low air temperatures during periods of emersion. They must also be able to cope with sharp temperature fluctuations over a short period of time during the tidal cycle. In winter air temperatures are colder than the sea, conversely in summer air temperatures are much warmer than the sea. Species that occur in the intertidal are therefore generally adapted to tolerate a range of temperatures, with the width of the thermal niche positively correlated with the height of the shore that the animal usually occurs at (Davenport & Davenport, 2005).

The tolerance of Semibalanus balanoides collected in the winter (and thus acclimated to lower temperatures) to low temperatures was tested in the laboratory. The median lower lethal temperature tolerance was -14.6°C (Davenport & Davenport, 2005) A decrease in temperature at the pressure benchmark is therefore unlikely to negatively affect this species. The same series of experiments indicated that median lower lethal temperature tolerances for Littorina saxatilis was -16.4°C. 

The distribution of both the key characterizing species, Semibalanus balanoides and Patella vulgata are 'northern' with their range extending from Portugal or northern Spain to the Arctic Circle. Over their range they are therefore subject to lower temperatures than in the UK, although distributions should be used cautiously as an indicator of thermal tolerance (Southward et al., 1995).  The barnacle Semibalanus balanoides is primarily a ‘northern’ species with an arctic-boreal distribution. Long-term time series show that recruitment success is correlated to lower sea temperatures (Mieszkowska et al., 2014). Due to warming temperatures its range has been contracting northwards. Temperatures above 10 to 12^oC inhibit reproduction (Barnes, 1957, 1963, Crisp & Patel, 1969) and laboratory studies suggest that temperatures at or below 10^oC for 4-6 weeks are required in winter for reproduction, although the precise threshold temperatures for reproduction are not clear (Rognstad et al., 2014). A decrease in temperature at the pressure benchmark is therefore unlikely to negatively affect this species. The limpet, Patella vulgata can also tolerate long periods of exposure to the air and consequently wide variations in temperature. Adults are also largely unaffected by short periods of extreme cold. Ekaratne & Crisp (1984) found adult limpets continuing to grow over winter when temperatures fell to -6°C and stopped only by still more severe weather. However, loss of adhesion after exposure to -13°C has been observed with limpets falling off rocks and therefore becoming easy prey to crabs or birds (Fretter & Graham, 1994). However, in the very cold winter of 1962-3 when temperatures repeatedly fell below 0°C over a period of two months large numbers of Patella vulgata were found dead (Crisp, 1964). Periods of frost may also kill juvenile Patella vulgata, resulting in recruitment failures in some years (Bowman & Lewis, 1977).

The associated species Mytilus edulis is a eurytopic species found in a wide temperature range and in areas which frequently experience freezing conditions and are vulnerable to ice scour (Seed & Suchanek 1992).  After acclimation of individuals of Mytilus edulis to 18°C, Kittner & Riisgaard (2005) observed that the filtrations rates were at their maximum between 8.3 and 20°C and below this at 6°C the mussels closed their valves.  However, after being acclimated at 11°C for five days, the mussels maintained the high filtration rates down to 4°C.  Hence, given time, mussels can acclimatise and shift their temperature tolerance.  Filtration in Mytilus edulis was observed to continue down to -1°C, with high absorption efficiencies (53-81%) (Loo, 1992).

Sensitivity assessment. Based on the wide temperature tolerance range of Patella vulgata it is concluded that the acute and chronic decreases in temperature described by the benchmark would have limited effect. Similarly, based on global temperatures and the link between cooler winter temperatures and reproductive success, Semibalanus balanoides is also considered to be unaffected at the pressure benchmark. Based on the characterizing species and Mytilus edulis this biotope is considered to have a ‘High’ resistance and ‘High' resilience (by default) to this pressure and is therefore considered to be ‘Not sensitive’. 

Salinity increase (local)

Benchmark. A increase in one MNCR salinity category above the usual range of the biotope or habitat. Further detail

Evidence

No evidence.

Salinity decrease (local)

Benchmark. A decrease in one MNCR salinity category above the usual range of the biotope or habitat. Further detail

Evidence

Patella vulgata can tolerate varying salinities and its distribution extends into the mouths of estuaries surviving in salinities down to about 20 psu. However, growth and reproduction may be impaired in reduced salinity. Little et al. (1991), for example, observed reduced levels of activity in limpets after heavy rainfall and in the laboratory activity completely stopped at 12 psu. The species can endure periods of low salinity and was found to die only when the salinity was reduced to 3-1 psu (Fretter & Graham, 1994). In experiments where freshwater was trickled over the shell Arnold (1957) observed limpets withdrawing and clamping the shell onto the substratum. There appears to be an increasing tolerance of low salinities from the lower to the upper limit of distribution of the species on the shore (Fretter & Graham, 1994).

Semibalanus balanoides are tolerant of a wide range of salinity and can survive periodic emersion in freshwater, e.g. from rainfall or freshwater run-off, by closing their opercular valves (Foster, 1971b). They can also withstand large changes in salinity over moderately long periods of time by falling into a "salt sleep" and can be found on shores (example from Sweden) with large fluctuations in salinity around a mean of 24 (Jenkins et al., 2001).

Similarly, most of the associated species (e.g. Mytilus edulis) are found in a wide range of salinities and are probably tolerant of variable or reduced salinity. The intertidal interstitial invertebrates and epifauna probably experience short-term fluctuating salinities, with reduced salinities due to rainfall and freshwater runoff when emersed. Prolonged reduction in salinity, e.g. from full to reduced due to e.g. freshwater runoff, is likely to reduce the species richness of the biotope due to loss of less tolerant red algae and some intolerant invertebrates. However, the dominant species will probably survive and the integrity of the biotope is likely to be little affected. Areas of freshwater runoff in the intertidal promote the growth of ephemeral greens, probably due to their tolerance of low salinities and inhibition of grazing invertebrates. 

Sensitivity assessment. Based on reported distributions and the results of experiments to assess salinity tolerance thresholds and behavioural and physiological responses in Patella vulgata and Semibalanus balanoides it is considered that the benchmark decrease in salinity (from full to variable) would not result in mortality of the characterizing species in biotopes that were previously fully marine. Resistance is therefore assessed as 'High' and resilience as 'High' (based on no effect to recover from) and the biotope is considered to be 'Not sensitive' at the benchmark level.

Water flow (tidal current) changes (local)

Benchmark. A change in peak mean spring bed flow velocity of between 0.1 m/s to 0.2 m/s for more than one year. Further detail

Evidence

The biotope is characteristic of exposed to moderately wave exposed conditions where water movement from wave action will greatly exceed the strength of any possible tidal flow. The evidence is presented for the tolerance of the key characterizing species, Semibalanus balanoides and Patella vulgata to changes in water flow. However, it should be noted that wave action, is more significant as an environmental factor than flow for this biotope. 

Growth and reproduction of Semibalanus balanoides are influenced by food supply and water velocity (Bertness et al., 1991). Laboratory experiments demonstrate that barnacle feeding behaviour alters over different flow rates but that barnacles can feed at a variety of flow speeds (Sanford et al., 1994). Flow tank experiments using velocities of 0.03, 0.07 and 0.2 m/s showed that a higher proportion of barnacles fed at higher flow rates (Sanford et al., 1994). Feeding was passive, meaning the cirri were held out to the flow to catch particles; although active beating of the cirri to gernerate feeding currents occurs in still water (Crisp & Southward, 1961). Field observations at sites in southern New England (USA) that experience a number of different measured flow speeds, found that Semibalanus balanoides from all sites responded quickly to higher flow speeds, with a higher proportion of individuals feeding when current speeds were higher. Barnacles were present at a range of sites, varying from sheltered sites with lower flow rates (maximum observed flow rates <0.06- 0.1 m/s), a bay site with higher flow rates (maximum observed flows 0.2-0.3 m/s) and open coast sites (maximum observed flows 0.2-0.4 m/s). Recruitment was higher at the site with flow rates of 0.2-0.3 m/s (although this may be influenced by supply) and at higher flow microhabitats within all sites. Both laboratory and field observations indicate that flow is an important factor with effects on feeding, growth and recruitment in Semibalanus balanoides (Sanford et al., 1994; Leonard et al., 1998), however, the results suggest that flow is not a limiting factor determining the overall distribution of barnacles as they can adapt to a variety of flow speeds.

Patella vulgata inhabits a range of tidal conditions and is, therefore, likely to tolerate a change in water flow rate. The streamlined profile of limpet shells is of importance in increasing their tolerance of water movement, and this is undoubtedly one factor in determining the different shape of limpets at different exposures. With increasing exposure to wave action, the shell develops into a low profile reducing the risk of being swept away. The strong muscular foot and a thin film of mucus between the foot and the rock enables Patella vulgata to grip very strongly to the substratum (Fretter & Graham, 1994). The ability of limpets to resist accelerating, as distinct from constant currents, may set a limit to the kind of habitat in which they can occupy and limit the size to which they can grow.

Sensitivity assessment. The biotope is characteristic of exposed to moderately wave exposed conditions where water movement from wave action will greatly exceed the strength of any possible tidal flow. Based on the available evidence the characterizing species Patella vulgata and Semibalanus balanoides are able to adapt to high flow rates and the biotope is therefore considered to be 'Not sensitive' to an increase in water flow. A decrease in water flow may have some effects on recruitment and growth, but this is not considered to be lethal at the pressure benchmark and resistance is therefore assessed as 'High' and resilience as 'High' (by default) so that the biotope is considered to be 'Not sensitive'. A decrease in water flow, exceeding the pressure benchmark, coupled with a decrease in wave action, may, however, alter the character of the biotope to LR.MLR.MusF.MytFR or LR.MLR.MusF.MytFves, where brown seaweeds were able to proliferate and the edible periwinkle Littorina littorea was able to colonize.

Emergence regime changes

Benchmark.  1) A change in the time covered or not covered by the sea for a period of ≥1 year or 2) an increase in relative sea level or decrease in high water level for ≥1 year. Further detail

Evidence

Emergence regime is a key factor structuring this (and other) intertidal biotopes.  Increased emergence may reduce habitat suitability for characterizing species through greater exposure to desiccation and reduced feeding opportunities for the barnacles which feed when immersed.  Semibalanus balanoides is less tolerant of desiccation stress than Chthamalus barnacles species and changes in emergence may, therefore, lead to species replacement and the development of a Chthamalus sp. dominated biotope, more typical of the upper shore may develop. Records suggest that, typically, above this biotope on the shore there may be a Verrucaria maura zone, or a band of Chthamalus sp. (Connor et al., 2004).  Changes in emergence may therefore eventually lead to the replacement of this biotope to one more typical of the upper shore.

Decreased emergence would reduce desiccation stress and allow the attached suspension feeders more feeding time. Predation pressure on mussels and barnacles is likely to increase where these are submerged for longer periods and to prevent colonisation of lower zones. Semibalanus balanoides was able to extend its range into lower zones when protected from predation by the dogwhelk, Nucella lapillus (Connell, 1961). Competition from large fucoids and red algal turfs can also prevent Semibalanus balanoides from extending into lower shore levels (Hawkins, 1983). Below this biotope, a community dominated by the wrack Himanthalia elongata and various red seaweeds such as Corallina officinalis, Mastocarpus stellatus and Osmundea pinnatifida often occurs (Connor et al., 2004).  Decreased emergence is likely to lead to the habitat the biotope is found in becoming more suitable for the lower shore species generally found below the biotope, leading to replacement.

The mobile species present within the biotope, including the characterizing species, Patella vulgata and Nucella lapillus, and the Littorinids would be able to relocate to preferred shore levels. Although the success of relocation by Patella vulgata may depend on shore rugosity and shell fit (see resilience section for further information).

Sensitivity assessment.  Where this biotope occurs on the mid-shore it will be more sensitive to increased emergence, whereas lower shore examples may be more sensitive to decreased emergence, as the changed conditions occur towards the margins of habitat tolerance.  As emergence is a key factor structuring the distribution of animals on the shore, resistance to a change in emergence (increase or decrease) is assessed as ‘Low’. Resilience is assessed as ‘Medium’, and sensitivity is therefore assessed as 'Medium'.

Wave exposure changes (local)

Benchmark. A change in near shore significant wave height of >3% but <5% for more than one year. Further detail

Evidence

No direct evidence was found to assess the sensitivity of this biotope to changes in wave exposure at the pressure benchmark. This biotope is recorded from locations that are judged to range from moderately exposed or exposed (Connor et al., 2004). The degree of wave exposure influences wave height, as in more exposed areas with a longer fetch, waves would be predicted to be higher. As this biotope occurs across two wave exposure categories, this was therefore considered to indicate, by proxy, that biotopes in the middle of the wave exposure range would tolerate either an increase or decrease in significant wave height at the pressure benchmark. An increase or decrease in wave action, exceeding the pressure benchmark, may, however, alter the character of the biotope. Where wave action was significantly reduced a biotope more typical of sheltered shores would be predicted to develop, e.g. LR.MLR.MusF.MytFR or LR.MLR.MusF.MytFves, where brown seaweeds were able to proliferate on the rock surfaces and the edible periwinkle Littorina littorea was able to colonize. A decrease in wave exposure may ultimately reduce Patella vulgata abundance because the species does not favour thick algal cover that is often present on very sheltered shores. Alternatively, an increase in significant wave height, linked to increased exposure, may result in population changes with fewer macroalgae present and with the limpet Patella ulyssiponensis present, or present in greater numbers, rather than Patella vulgata (Thompson, 1980) and Chthamalus sp. replacing Semibalanus balanoides (Ballantine, 1961).

Sensitivity assessment. The natural wave exposure range of this biotope is therefore considered to exceed changes at the pressure benchmark and this biotope is considered to have 'High' resistance and 'High' resilience (by default), and to be 'Not sensitive' to this pressure (at the benchmark).  

Transition elements & organo-metal contamination

Benchmark. Exposure of marine species or habitat to one or more relevant contaminants via uncontrolled releases or incidental spills. Further detail

Evidence

This pressure is Not assessed but evidence is presented where available.

Contamination at levels greater than the benchmark may impact this biotope. However, Barnacles, may tolerate a fairly high level of heavy metals in nature, for example, they possess metal detoxification mechanisms and are found in Dulas Bay, Anglesey, where copper reaches concentrations of 24.5 µg/l, due to acid mine waste (Foster et al., 1978; Rainbow, 1984). Bryan (1984) suggested that gastropods are also rather tolerant of heavy metals. In the Fal estuary Patella vulgata occurs at, or just outside, Restronguet Point at the end of the creek where metal concentrations are in the order: Zinc (Zn) 100-2000 µg/l, copper (Cu) 10-100 µg/l and cadmium (Cd) 0.25-5 µg/l (Bryan & Gibbs, 1983). However, in the laboratory, Patella vulgata was found to be intolerant of small changes in environmental concentrations of Cd and Zn by Davies (1992). At concentrations of 10µg/l pedal mucus, production and levels of activity were both reduced, indicating a physiological response to metal concentrations. Exposure to Cu at a concentration of 100 µg/l for one week resulted in progressive brachycardia (slowing of the heart beat) and the death of limpets. Zn at a concentration of 5500 µg/l produced the same effect (Marchan et al.,1999).

Hydrocarbon & PAH contamination

Benchmark. Exposure of marine species or habitat to one or more relevant contaminants via uncontrolled releases or incidental spills. Further detail

Evidence

This pressure is Not assessed but evidence is presented where available.

Hydrocarbon contamination, at levels greater than the benchmark, e.g. from spills of fresh crude oil or petroleum products, may cause significant loss of component species in the biotope, through impacts on individual species viability or mortality, and resultant effects on the structure of the community (Suchanek, 1993; Raffaelli & Hawkins, 1999). In areas of moderate oil deposit, up to about 1/2cm thick, on rocks after the Torrey Canyon oil spill, limpets had survived unscathed over a month after the event and feeding continued even though a coating of oil smothered their food source of algae and diatoms (Smith, 1968). Limpets can ingest thick oil and pass it through their gut. However, thick layers of oil smothering individuals will interfere with respiration and spoil normal food supplies for Patella vulgata. Limpets are unable to remain closed off from the environment for very long, the adductor muscles relax occasionally, lifting the shell very slightly. After the Braer oil spill, in common with many other oil spills, the major impact in the intertidal zone was on the population of limpets and other grazers. In West Angle Bay, where fresh oil from the Sea Empress tanker reached rocky shores within one day of the spill, limpet mortality was 90% (Glegg et al., 1999). Thus Patella vulgata has a higher intolerance to fresh oil which has a high component of volatile hydrocarbons remaining. A significant reduction in the density of juvenile limpets was also observed at all sites known to have been oiled by the Sea Empress spill (Moore, 1997). In long-term studies into the environmental effects of oil refinery effluent discharged into Littlewick Bay, Milford Haven, the number of limpets, usually found in substantial numbers on this type of shore, were considerably reduced in abundance on areas close to the discharge (Petpiroon & Dicks, 1982). In particular, only large individuals were found close to the outfall point and juveniles were completely absent, suggesting that observed changes in abundance resulted from effluent effects on larval stages rather than upon adults directly.

Littoral barnacles (e.g. Semibalanus balanoides) have a high resistance to oil (Holt et al., 1995) but may suffer some mortality due to the smothering effects of thick oil (Smith, 1968).

However, laboratory studies of the effects of oil and dispersants on several red algae species (Grandy, 1984 cited in Holt et al. 1995) concluded that they were all sensitive to oil/ dispersant mixtures, with little differences between adults, sporelings, diploid or haploid life stages. O'Brien & Dixon (1976) suggested that red algae were the most sensitive group of algae to oil or dispersant contamination.

Synthetic compound contamination

Benchmark. Exposure of marine species or habitat to one or more relevant contaminants via uncontrolled releases or incidental spills. Further detail

Evidence

This pressure is Not assessed but evidence is presented where available.

Synthetic compound contamination, at levels greater than the benchmark, is likely to have a variety of effects depending the specific nature of the contaminant and the species group(s) affected. Barnacles have a low resilience to chemicals such as dispersants, dependant on the concentration and type of chemical involved (Holt et al., 1995). Hoare & Hiscock (1974) reported that the limpet Patella vulgata was excluded from sites within 100-150m of the discharge of acidified, halogenated effluent in Amlwch Bay. Limpets are also extremely intolerant of aromatic solvent based dispersants used in oil spill clean-up. During the clean-up response to the Torrey Canyon oil spill nearly all the limpets were killed in areas close to dispersant spraying. Viscous oil will not be readily drawn in under the edge of the shell by ciliary currents in the mantle cavity, whereas detergent, alone or diluted in seawater, would creep in much more readily and be liable to kill the limpet (Smith, 1968). A concentration of 5ppm killed half the limpets tested in 24 hours (Southward & Southward, 1978; Hawkins & Southward, 1992). Acidified seawater affects the motility of Patella vulgata. At a pH of 5.5 motility was reduced whilst submerged but individuals recovered when returned to normal seawater. At a pH of 2.5 total inhibition of movement occurred and when returned to normal seawater half had died (Bonner et al., 1993). Reduced motility reduces the time for foraging and may result in decreased survival of individuals. Acidified seawater can also change the shell composition which will lead to a decrease in its protective nature and hence survival (Bonner et al., 1993). Short periods (48 hours) are unlikely to have much effect on a population but long periods (1 year) may cause reduced grazing and an increase in algal growth. However, seawater is unlikely to reach pH 2.5, therefore, intolerance to slight changes in pH will be low. Gastropod molluscs are known to be intolerant of endocrine disruption from synthetic chemicals such as tri-butyl tin (Cole et al., 1999). However, no information on the specific effects of tri-butyl tin on Patella vulgata was found. Hoare & Hiscock (1974) reported that in Amlwch Bay Patella vulgata was excluded from sites within 100-150m of the discharge of acidified, halogenated effluent.

Red algae are probably intolerant of chemical contamination. O'Brien & Dixon (1976) suggested that red algae were the most sensitive group of algae to oil contamination, although the filamentous forms were the most sensitive. Laboratory studies of the effects of oil and dispersants on several red algae species, including Palmaria palmata (Grandy, 1984 cited in Holt et al., 1995) concluded that they were all sensitive to oil/ dispersant mixtures, with little differences between adults, sporelings, diploid or haploid life stages. Cole et al. (1999) suggested that herbicides, such as simazine and atrazine were very toxic to macrophytes. In addition, Hoare & Hiscock (1974) noted that almost all red algae were excluded from Amlwch Bay, Anglesey by acidified halogenated effluent discharge.

Radionuclide contamination

Benchmark. An increase in 10µGy/h above background levels. Further detail

Evidence

No evidence.

Introduction of other substances

Benchmark. Exposure of marine species or habitat to one or more relevant contaminants via uncontrolled releases or incidental spills. Further detail

Evidence

This pressure is Not assessed.

De-oxygenation

Benchmark. Exposure to dissolved oxygen concentration of less than or equal to 2 mg/l for one week (a change from WFD poor status to bad status). Further detail

Evidence

An oxygen concentration at the level of the benchmark, 2 mg/l, is thought likely to cause adverse effects in marine organisms. In laboratory experiments a reduction in the oxygen tension of seawater from 148 mm Hg (air saturated seawater) to 50 mm Hg rapidly resulted in reduced heart rate in limpets of the genus Patella (Marshall & McQuaid, 1993). Heartbeat rate returned to normal in oxygenated water within two hours. Limpets can survive for a short time in anoxic seawater;  Grenon & Walker, (1981) found that in oxygen free water limpets could survive up to 36 hours, although Marshall & McQuaid (1989) found a lower tolerance for Patella granularis, which survived up to 11 hours in anoxic water. Therefore, some individuals may survive for one week at an oxygen concentration of 2 mg/l. However, Patella vulgata is an intertidal species, being able to respire in air, so would only be exposed to low oxygen in the water column intermittently during periods of tidal immersion. In addition, in areas of wave exposure and moderately strong current flow low oxygen levels in the water are unlikely to persist for very long.

Semibalanus balanoides can respire anaerobically, so they can tolerate some reduction in oxygen concentration (Newell, 1979). When placed in wet nitrogen, where oxygen stress is maximal and desiccation stress is low, Semibalanus balanoides have a mean survival time of 5 days (Barnes et al., 1963).

Sensitivity assessment. The characterizing species Patella vulgata and Semibalanus balanaides are considered to be ‘Not Sensitive’ to deoxygenation at the pressure benchmark. Resistance is therefore assessed as ‘High’ and resilience as ‘High’ (no effect to recover from), resulting in a sensitivity of 'Not sensitive'.   However, as this biotope occurs in the intertidal, emergence will mitigate the effects of hypoxic surface waters as will the exposure to wave action and water flows and this pressure is considered to be 'Not relevant'.

Nutrient enrichment

Benchmark. Compliance with WFD criteria for good status. Further detail

Evidence

No direct evidence was found to assess this pressure. A slight increase in nutrient levels could be beneficial for barnacles and mussels by promoting the growth of phytoplankton levels and therefore increasing zooplankton levels. Limpets and other grazers would also benefit from increased growth of benthic microalgae. However, Holt et al. (1995) predict that smothering of barnacles by ephemeral green algae is a possibility under eutrophic conditions. However, if nutrient loading is excessive this can have a detrimental effect on algal productivity and hence limpet growth.

Sensitivity assessment. The pressure benchmark is set at a level that is relatively protective and based on the evidence and considerations outlined above the biological assemblage, including the clumps of Mytilus edulis, are considered to be 'Not sensitive' at the pressure benchmark. Resistance and resilience are therefore assessed as 'High'.

Organic enrichment

Benchmark. A deposit of 100 gC/m²/yr. Further detail

Evidence

Organic enrichment may lead to eutrophication with adverse environmental effects including deoxygenation, algal blooms and changes in community structure (see nutrient enrichment and de-oxygenation). The biotopes occurs in tide swept or wave exposed areas (Connor et al., 2004) preventing a build up of organic matter, so that the biotope is considered to have a low risk of organic enrichment at the pressure benchmark. Little evidence was found to support this assessment, Cabral-Oliveira et al., (2014), found that filter feeders such as Mytilus sp. and the barnacle Chthamalus montagui, were more abundant at sites closer to a sewage treatment works, as they could utilise the organic matter inputs as food. On the same shores, higher abundances of juvenile Patella sp. and lower abundances of adults were found closer to sewage inputs, Cabral-Oliveira et al., (2014) suggested the structure of these populations was due to increased competition closer to the sewage outfalls. 

Sensitivity assessment. Little empirical evidence was found to support an assessment for Semibalanus balanoides and Patella vulgata within this biotope.  As organic matter particles in suspension or re-suspended could potentially be utilised as a food resource by filter feeders present within the biotope (Cabral-Oliveira et al., 2014) with excess likely to be rapidly removed by wave action, overall resistance of the biological assemblage within the biotope is considered to be 'High' and resilience was assessed as 'High', so that this biotope is judged to be 'Not sensitive'. Limpets may be sensitive to even low levels of deposition (see siltation pressure), so that impacts from this pressure will depend on the duration of input and any deposits.

Physical loss (to land or freshwater habitat)

Benchmark. A permanent loss of existing saline habitat within the site. Further detail

Evidence

All marine habitats and benthic species are considered to have a resistance of ‘None’ to this pressure and to be unable to recover from a permanent loss of habitat (resilience is ‘Very low’).  Sensitivity within the direct spatial footprint of this pressure is, therefore ‘High’.  Although no specific evidence is described confidence in this assessment is ‘High’, due to the incontrovertible nature of this pressure.

Physical change (to another seabed type)

Benchmark. Permanent change from sedimentary or soft rock substrata to hard rock or artificial substrata or vice-versa. Further detail

Evidence

This biotope is characterized by the hard rock substratum to which the key characterizing species barnacles, Semibalanus balanoides, and limpets, Patella vulgata, and other species such as Mytilus edulis and algal turfs can firmly attach. A change to a sedimentary substratum would significantly alter the character of the biotope. Changes in substratum type can also lead to indirect effects. For example, Shanks & Wright (1986) observed that limpet mortalities were much higher at sites where the supply of loose cobbles and pebbles were greater, leading to increased abrasion through wave action 'throwing' rocks onto surfaces. The biotope is therefore considered to have 'None' resistance to this pressure, resilience is 'Very low' (the pressure is a permanent change) and sensitivity is assessed as 'High'.

Physical change (to another sediment type)

Benchmark. Permanent change in one Folk class (based on UK SeaMap simplified classification). Further detail

Evidence

Not relevant to biotopes occurring on bedrock.

Habitat structure changes - removal of substratum (extraction)

Benchmark. The extraction of substratum to 30 cm (where substratum includes sediments and soft rock but excludes hard bedrock). Further detail

Evidence

The species characterizing this biotope are epifauna or epiflora occurring on rock and would be sensitive to the removal of the habitat. However, extraction of rock substratum is considered unlikely and this pressure is considered to be ‘Not relevant’ to hard substratum habitats.

Abrasion / disturbance of the surface of the substratum or seabed

Benchmark. Damage to surface features (e.g. species and physical structures within the habitat). Further detail

Evidence

The barnacles and limpets that are the key characterizing species within this biotope typically occur on the rock surfaces where they will be exposed to abrasion. Although both species are protected by hard shells or plates, abrasion may damage and kill individuals or detach these. All removed barnacles would be expected to die as there is no mechanism for these to reattach. Removal of limpets may result in these being displaced to a less favourable habitat and injuries to foot muscles may prevent reattachment.   Evidence for the effects of abrasion is provided by a number of experimental studies on trampling (a source of abrasion) and on abrasion by wave thrown rocks and pebbles.

The effects of trampling on barnacles appear to be variable with some studies not detecting significant differences between trampled and controlled areas (Tyler-Walters & Arnold, 2008). However, this variability may be related to differences in trampling intensities and abundance of populations studied. The worst case incidence was reported by Brosnan and Crumrine (1994) who reported that a trampling pressure of 250 steps in a 20x20 cm plot one day a month for a period of a year significantly reduced barnacle cover at two study sites. Barnacle cover reduced from 66% to 7% cover in 4 months at one site and from 21% to 5% within 6 months at the second site. Overall barnacles were crushed and removed by trampling. Barnacle cover remained low until recruitment the following spring. Long et al. (2011) also found that heavy trampling (70 humans km^-1 shoreline h^-1) led to reductions in barnacle cover.  Single step experiments provide a clearer, quantitative indication of sensitivity to direct abrasion. Povey & Keough (1991) in experiments on shores in Mornington Peninsula, Victora, Australia, found that in single step experiments 10 out of 67 barnacles, (Chthamalus antennatus about 3 mm long),  were crushed. However, on the same shore, the authors found that limpets may be relatively more resistant to abrasion from trampling. Following step and kicking experiments, few individuals of the limpet Cellana trasomerica, (similar size to Patella vulgata)  suffered damage or relocated (Povey & Keough, 1991). One kicked limpet (out of 80) was broken and 2 (out of 80) limpets that were stepped on could not be relocated the following day (Povey & Keough, 1991). Trampling may lead to indirect effects on limpet populations, Bertocci et al., (2011) found that the effects of trampling on Patella sp. increased the temporal and spatial variability of in abundance. The experimental plots were sited on a wave-sheltered shore dominated by Ascophyllum nodosum. On these types of shore, trampling in small patches, that removes macroalgae and turfs, will indirectly enhance habitat suitability for limpets by creating patches of exposed rock for grazing.  

Shanks & Wright (1986), found that even small pebbles (<6 cm) that were thrown by wave action in Southern California shores could create patches in Chthamalus fissus aggregations and could smash owl limpets (Lottia gigantea). Average, estimated survivorship of limpets at a wave exposed site, with many loose cobbles and pebbles allowing greater levels of abrasion was 40% lower than at a sheltered site. Severe storms were observed to lead to the almost total destruction of local populations of limpets through abrasion by large rocks and boulders.

Sensitivity assessment. The impact of surface abrasion will depend on the footprint, duration and magnitude of the pressure. Surface abrasion may directly crush and remove Semibalanus balanoides and Patella vulgata. Resistance is therefore assessed as ‘Low’ for barnacles and limpets. Populations are predicted to remover within 2 -10 years, so that resilience is considered to be ‘Medium’ and sensitivity is ‘Medium’.   

Penetration or disturbance of the substratum subsurface

Benchmark. Damage to sub-surface features (e.g. species and physical structures within the habitat). Further detail

Evidence

The species characterizing this biotope group are epifauna or epiflora occurring on rock, which is resistant to subsurface penetration.  Therefore, ‘penetration’ is 'Not relevant'. The assessment for abrasion at the surface only is, therefore, considered to equally represent sensitivity to this pressure’. Please refer to ‘abrasion’ above.

Changes in suspended solids (water clarity)

Benchmark. A change in one rank on the WFD (Water Framework Directive) scale e.g. from clear to intermediate for one year. Further detail

Evidence

In general, increased suspended particles may enhance food supply (where these are organic in origin) or decrease feeding efficiency (where the particles are inorganic and require greater filtration efforts).  Very high levels of silt may clog respiratory and feeding organs of the suspension feeding Semibalanus balanoides and clog the gills of Patella vulgata. In addition, increased turbidity will decrease light penetration reducing photosynthesis by macroalgae within this biotope.  Increased levels of particles may increase scour and deposition in the biotope depending on local hydrodynamic conditions, although changes in substratum are assessed through the physical change (to another seabed type) pressure. Gyory et al. (2013) found that increased turbidity triggered the release of larvae by Semibalanus balanoides, a response that may allow the larval release to be timed with high levels of phytoplankton and at times where predation on larvae may be lowered due to the concentration of particles. Storm events that stir up sediments are also associated with the larval release (Gyory & Pineda, 2011).

A significant decrease in suspended organic particles may reduce food input resulting in reduced growth and fecundity of the suspension feeding barnacles. However, local primary productivity (phytoplankton and diatom films) may be enhanced where suspended sediments decrease, increasing food supply to both characterizing species.  Decreased suspended sediment may increase macroalgal competition, enhancing diversity, but is considered unlikely to significantly change the character of the biotope as colonisation by larger brown macroalgae is likely to be limited by wave action in this biotope rather than light limitation.  

Sensitivity assessment. The benchmark for this pressure refers to a change in turbidity of one rank on the Water Framework Directive (WFD) scale.  Where changes in suspended sediment supply were linked to decreased wave action and water flow to enhance settlement, limpets would be sensitive to deposition (see siltation pressures). The biotope is considered to be 'Not sensitive' to a decrease in suspended solids. An increase in inorganic suspended sediments may negatively affect the feeding of Semibalanus balanoides with some impacts on growth and survival. Resistance is therefore assessed as 'Medium' and resilience as 'High' so that sensitivity is assessed as 'Low'.

Smothering and siltation rate changes (light)

Benchmark. ‘Light’ deposition of up to 5 cm of fine material added to the seabed in a single discrete event. Further detail

Evidence

More direct evidence to assess this pressure was found for the characterizing species Patella vulgata, than Semibalanus balanoides. However, the lower limits of Semibalanus balanoides (as Balanus balanoides) appear to be set by levels of sand inundation on sand-affected rocky shores in New Hamshire (Daly & Mathieson, 1977).

Field observations and laboratory experiments have highlighted the sensitivity of limpets to sediment deposition (see also the ‘heavy’ siltation pressure for further information).  Airoldi & Hawkins (2007) tested the effects of different grain sizes and deposit thickness in laboratory experiments using Patella vulgata. Sediments were added as a ‘fine’ rain to achieve deposit thicknesses of approximately 1mm, 2 mm, and 4 mm in controlled experiments and grazing and mortality observed over 8-12 days.  Limpets were more sensitive to sediments with a higher fraction of fines (67% silt) than coarse (58% sand). Coarse sediments of thicknesses approximately 1, 2 and 4 mm decreased grazing activity by 35, 45 and 50 % respectively. At 1 and 2 mm thicknesses, fine sediments decreased grazing by 40 and 77 %. The addition of approximately 4 mm of fine sediment completely inhibited grazing. Limpets tried to escape the sediment but lost attachment and died after a few days (Airoldi & Hawkins, 2007).

Observations on exposed and sheltered shores with patches of sediment around Plymouth in the south-west of England found that Patella vulgata abundances were higher where deposits were absent. The limpets were locally absent in plots with 50-65% sediment cover (Airoldi & Hawkins, 2007). Littler et al. (1983) found that another limpet species, Lottia gigantea on southern Californian shores was restricted to refuges from sand burial on shores subject to periodic inundation by sands.

Sensitivity assessment. Semibalanus balanoides is found permanently attached to hard substrates and is a suspension feeder. This species, therefore, has no ability to escape from silty sediments which would bury individuals and prevent feeding and respiration.   However, no direct evidence for sensitivity to siltation was found. Resistance is assessed as ‘Medium’ as wave action on rocky shores is likely to rapidly mobilise and remove deposits alleviating the effect of smothering.  Resilience is assessed as ‘High’ and sensitivity is therefore considered to be ‘Low’.

Even small deposits of sediments are likely to result in local removal of limpets. The level of impact will depend on the magnitude and duration of impact.  It should be noted that the level of exposure may be reduced by wave action or water flows so that site-specific vulnerability will be lower where sediments do not accumulate. Resistance to siltation is assessed as ‘Low’ for Patella vulgata based primarily on observations and experiments of Airoldi & Hawkins, (2007), who demonstrated negative effects at deposit thicknesses far lower than the pressure benchmark.  Small patches subject to a single impact may recover rapidly via adult migration. However, based on the prolonged recovery times experienced in more wide-ranging impacts, resilience is assessed as ‘Medium’ (2-10 years) and sensitivity is therefore assessed as ‘Medium’.  This more precautionary assessment is presented for the biotope, rather than the lower sensitivity of Semibalanus balanoides. Repeated deposition events, coupled with changes in water flow and wave action may lead to the establishment of turf-forming algae that trap sediments, this would significantly alter the character of the biotope.

Smothering and siltation rate changes (heavy)

Benchmark. ‘Heavy’ deposition of up to 30 cm of fine material added to the seabed in a single discrete event. Further detail

Evidence

More direct evidence to assess this pressure was found for the characterizing species Patella vulgata, than Semibalanus balanoides. However, the lower limits of Semibalanus balanoides (as Balanus balanoides) appear to be set by levels of sand inundation on sand-affected rocky shores in New Hampshire (Daly & Mathieson, 1977). Barnacle feeding may be affected however by smothering, wave action on rocky shores is likely to rapidly mobilise and remove deposits alleviating the effect of smothering. However, the lower limits of Semibalanus balanoides (as Balanus balanoides) appear to be set by levels of sand inundation on sand-affected rocky shores in New Hamshire (Daly & Mathieson, 1977).

Field observations and laboratory experiments have highlighted the sensitivity of limpets to sediment deposition (see also the ‘heavy’ siltation pressure for further information).  Airoldi & Hawkins (2007) tested the effects of different grain sizes and deposit thickness in laboratory experiments using Patella vulgata. Sediments were added as a ‘fine’ rain to achieve deposit thicknesses of approximately 1mm, 2 mm, and 4 mm in controlled experiments and grazing and mortality observed over 8-12 days.  Limpets were more sensitive to sediments with a higher faction of fines (67% silt) than coarse (58% sand). Coarse sediments of thicknesses approximately 1, 2 and 4 mm decreased grazing activity by 35, 45 and 50 % respectively. At 1 and 2 mm thicknesses, fine sediments decreased grazing by 40 and 77 %. The addition of approximately 4 mm of fine sediment completely inhibited grazing. Limpets tried to escape the sediment but lost attachment and died after a few days (Airoldi & Hawkins, 2007). Observations on exposed and sheltered shores with patches of sediment around Plymouth in the south-west of England found that Patella vulgata abundances were higher where deposits were absent. The limpets were locally absent in plots with 50-65% sediment cover (Airoldi & Hawkins, 2007). Littler et al., (1983) found that another limpet species, Lottia gigantea on southern Californian shores was restricted to refuges from sand burial on shores subject to periodic inundation by sands.

Sensitivity assessment. Sensitivity to this pressure will be mediated by site-specific hydrodynamic conditions and the footprint of the impact. Where a large area is covered sediments may be shifted by wave and tides rather than removed. Semibalanus balanoides is found permanently attached to hard substrates and is a suspension feeder. This species, therefore, has no ability to escape from silty sediments which would bury individuals and prevent feeding and respiration. Resilience is assessed as ‘Medium’ and sensitivity is therefore considered to be ‘Medium’. No direct evidence for sensitivity to siltation was found. However, mortality will depend on the duration of smothering, where wave action rapidly mobilises and removes fine sediments, survival may be much greater. Even small deposits of sediments are likely to result in local removal of limpets. Resistance to siltation at the benchmark level is assessed as ‘None’ for Patella vulgata based primarily on the observations and experiments of Airoldi & Hawkins, (2007), who demonstrated negative effects at deposit thicknesses far lower than the pressure benchmark.  Small patches subject to a single impact may recover rapidly via adult migration. However, based on the prolonged recovery times experienced in more wide-ranging impacts, resilience is assessed as ‘Medium’ (2-10 years) and sensitivity is therefore assessed as ‘Medium’.  This more precautionary assessment is presented for the biotope, rather than the lower sensitivity of Semibalanus balanoides. Repeated deposition events, coupled with changes in water flow and wave action may lead to the establishment of turf-forming algae that trap sediments, this would significantly alter the character of the biotope.

Litter

Benchmark. The introduction of man-made objects able to cause physical harm (surface, water column, seafloor or strandline). Further detail

Evidence

Thompson et al., (2004) demonstrated that Semibalanus balanoides, kept in aquaria, ingested microplastics within a few days. However, the effects of the microplastics on the health of exposed individuals have not been identified. There is currently no evidence to assess the level of impact. 

Electromagnetic changes

Benchmark. A local electric field of 1 V/m or a local magnetic field of 10 µT. Further detail

Evidence

No evidence.

Underwater noise changes

Benchmark. MSFD indicator levels (SEL or peak SPL) exceeded for 20% of days in a calendar year. Further detail

Evidence

Not relevant. Wave action on exposed shores is likely to generate high levels of underwater noise. Other sources are not considered likely to result in effects on the biotope.

Introduction of light or shading

Benchmark. A change in incident light via anthropogenic means. Further detail

Evidence

Semibalanus balanoides sheltered from the sun grew bigger than unshaded individuals (Hatton, 1938; cited in Wethey, 1984), although the effect may be due to indirect cooling effects rather than shading. Barnacles are also frequently found under algal canopies suggesting that they are tolerant of shading. Light levels have also been demonstrated to influence a number of phases of the reproductive cycle in Semibalanus balanoides.  In general, light inhibits aspects of the breeding cycle. Penis development is inhibited by light (Barnes & Stone, 1972) while Tighe-Ford (1967) showed that constant light inhibited gonad maturation and fertilization. Davenport & Crisp (unpublished data from Menai Bridge, Wales, cited from Davenport et al., 2005) found that experimental exposure to either constant darkness or 6-hour light: 18-hour dark photoperiods induced autumn breeding in Semibalanus. They also confirmed that very low continuous light intensities (little more than starlight) inhibited breeding. Latitudinal variations in the timing of the onset of reproductive phases (egg mass hardening) have been linked to the length of darkness (night) experienced by individuals rather than temperature (Davenport et al., 2005). Changes in light levels associated with climate change (increased cloud cover) were considered to have the potential to alter the timing of reproduction (Davenport et al., 2005) and to shift the range limits of this species southward. However, it is not clear how these findings may reflect changes in light levels from artificial sources, and whether observable changes would occur at the population level as a result. Therefore, there is 'insufficient evidence' on which to base an assessment.

Barrier to species movement

Benchmark. A permanent or temporary barrier to species movement over ≥50% of water body width or a 10% change in tidal excursion. Further detail

Evidence

No direct evidence was found to assess this pressure. As the larvae of Patella vulgata and Semibalanus balanoides are planktonic and are transported by water movements, barriers that reduce the degree of tidal excursion may alter larval supply to suitable habitats from source populations. However, the presence of barriers may enhance local population supply by preventing the loss of larvae from enclosed habitats.  As both species are widely distributed and have larvae capable of long distance transport, resistance to this pressure is assessed as 'High' and resilience as 'High' (by default). This biotope is therefore assessed as 'Not sensitive'. 

Death or injury by collision

Benchmark. Injury or mortality from collisions of biota with both static or moving structures due to 0.1% of tidal volume on an average tide, passing through an artificial structure. Further detail

Evidence

'Not relevant’ to seabed habitats.  NB. Collision by grounding vessels is addressed under ‘surface abrasion. 

Visual disturbance

Benchmark. The daily duration of transient visual cues exceeds 10% of the period of site occupancy by the feature. Further detail

Evidence

Not relevant.

Genetic modification & translocation of indigenous species

Benchmark. Translocation of indigenous species or the introduction of genetically modified or genetically different populations of indigenous species that may result in changes in the genetic structure of local populations, hybridization, or change in community structure. Further detail

Evidence

The characterizing species, Semibalanus balanoides and Patella vulgata and other common rocky shores species within the biotope, with the exception of Mytilus edulis which occurs in low densities, are not subject to translocation or cultivation. Commercial cultivation of Mytilus edulis involves the collection of juvenile mussel ‘seed’ or spat (newly settled juveniles ca 1-2 cm in length) from wild populations, with subsequent transportation around the UK for re-laying in suitable habitats. As the seed is harvested from wild populations from various locations the gene pool will not necessarily be decreased by translocations.  Movement of mussel seed has the potential to transport pathogens and non-native species (see sensitivity assessments for Mytilus edulis bed biotopes). A review by Svåsand et al. (2007) concluded that there was a lack of evidence distinguishing between different Mytilus edulis populations to accurately assess the impacts of hybridisation with the congener Mytilus galloprovincialis and in particular how the gene flow may be affected by aquaculture.  Therefore, it cannot be confirmed whether farming will have an impact on the genetics of wild individuals beyond a potential for increased hybridisation.

Sensitivity assessment. No direct evidence was found regarding the potential for negative impacts of translocated mussel seed on wild Mytilus edulis populations.  While it is possible that translocation of mussel seed could lead to gene flow between cultivated beds and local wild populations, there is currently no evidence to assess the impact (Svåsand et al., 2007).

Introduction or spread of invasive non-indigenous species

Benchmark. The introduction of one or more invasive non-indigenous species (INIS). Further detail

Evidence

The Pacific oyster, Magallana (syn. Crassostrea) gigas, is native to warm temperate regions from the northwest Pacific to Japan and northeast Asia, including Cape Mariya (Russia) to Hong Kong (China) (Carrasco & Baron, 2010; GBNNSS, 2011, 2012). It is a fast-growing and tolerant species that has become a successful invader in the coastal waters of all continents, aside from Antarctica (Wrange et al., 2010; Carrasco & Baron, 2010; Padilla, 2010). Magallana gigas is recognised as a beneficial and important species in aquaculture worldwide (Padilla, 2010). It was initially introduced for aquaculture in Europe and the UK in the 1960s due to a decline in the Portuguese oyster (Crassostrea angulata) and the European flat oyster (Ostrea edulis) (Spencer et al., 1994; GBNNSS, 2011, 2012; Humphreys et al., 2014 cited in Alves et al., 2021; Hansen et al., 2023).

Since introduction, the species has invaded and established self-sustaining natural populations throughout Europe from the North Sea, Wadden Sea and Scandinavian coastlines to the Atlantic coastlines of Spain and Portugal, as well as the Mediterranean and Adriatic Sea (Wrange et al., 2010; GBNNSS, 2011, 2012; Ezgeta-Balic et al., 2019; Spagnolo et al., 2019; Bergstrom et al., 2021; Hansen et al., 2023). In the UK, the species predominantly occurs around the southern and western coastlines (OBIS, 2024; NBN, 2024). Shipping activity has also been associated with the introduction of Magallana gigas in the northeastern Adriatic Sea, where it was not introduced for aquaculture (Ezgeta-Balic et al., 2019). It was also suggested that some Magallana gigas populations were established in southwest England from France possibly via fouling on ships (GBNNSS, 2011, 2012; Padilla, 2010; Ezgeta-Balic et al., 2019).

Magallana gigas has a high fecundity, a long-lived pelagic larval phase (2 to 4 weeks) and can produce up to 200 million eggs during spawning (Herbert et al., 2012, 2016; Alves et al., 2021; Wood et al., 2021; Hansen et al., 2023). Hence, as a broadcast spawner, it has a high dispersal potential of more than 1000 km (Padilla, 2010; Wood et al., 2021). Larval mortality can be as large as 99%, as larvae are sensitive to environmental conditions (Alves et al., 2021). However, adults are long-lived so populations can survive with infrequent recruitment (Padilla, 2010). Larval dispersal and mass spawning events have facilitated the settlement and establishment of Pacific oysters, as seen in the Oosterschelde estuary, Netherlands (Hansen et al., 2023). It has been suggested that the spread of the Pacific oyster in Scandinavia is due to northward larval drift on tidal and wind-driven currents (Hansen et al., 2023). Wood et al. (2021) suggested that larval dispersal of the Pacific oyster from populations within and outside the UK was possible via unaided (passive) transport by currents, but that aquaculture and offshore structures (e.g. windfarms) increased the risk of the invasive species spreading and the geographical extent of spread.

Magallana gigas is an ecosystem engineer and can dramatically change habitat structure when it invades. Once successfully settled, groups of Pacific oysters may form dense aggregations, potentially forming a reef, which in some regions can reach densities of 700 individuals/m2 (Herbert et al., 2012, 2016). Once, the density of live or dead Pacific oysters reaches or exceeds 200 ind./m2, little of the underlying substratum remains visible (Herbert et al., 2016). These reefs can stabilize the sediment surface locally (Troost, 2010). When such reefs are formed or, particularly when the species colonizes soft sediments such as mud or sand, it can change and affect local communities, by creating hard substrata for mobile species, which might not otherwise be present before the invasion (Padilla, 2010). However, Hansen et al. (2023) suggested that where the Pacific oyster occurs sporadically, no immediate ecosystem risk is observed.

Magallana gigas also colonizes littoral intertidal biogenic reefs formed by the blue mussel Mytilus edulis or honeycomb worm Sabellaria alveolata (GBNNSS, 2011, 2012; Kochmann, 2012; Kochmann et al., 2013; Herbert et al., 2016; Tillin et al., 2020). Evidence suggests the Pacific oyster can out-compete Mytilus edulis, particularly for food and space, as the faster growth rates of the oyster make it more competitive when food or space is limiting (Nehls et al., 2006; Padilla, 2010; Tillin et al., 2020; Joyce et al., 2021). The invasion of Magallana gigas may alter the structure and function of these intertidal reefs but can create a multi-layered structure of a mixture of oysters and blue mussels that is more resilient and accumulates a higher biodiversity of flora and fauna and supports the densities of other native species such as Littorina littorea (Reise et al., 2017; Andriana et al., 2020; Cornelius & Buschbaum, 2020; Hansen et al., 2023).

Magallana gigas requires hard substrata for successful settlement and establishment, including littoral rock, bedrock, chalk, bare boulders, cobbles and pebbles and shells (Kochmann, 2012; Kochmann et al., 2013; Mckinstry & Jensen, 2013; Herbert et al., 2016; Tillin et al., 2020) because its larvae require hard substrata for successful settlement and development (Mckinstry & Jensen, 2013; Tillin et al., 2020). Invasive populations of Magallana gigas have been found wave-exposed rocky shores to wave-sheltered soft sediment environments and it has been described as a habitat generalist (Troost, 2010; Kochmann, 2012; Kochmann et al., 2013). For example, in Scotland, wild Magallana gigas are mainly located in the lower intertidal on bedrock, bedrock encrusted with barnacles, within bedrock crevices, and large and small boulders (Cook et al., 2014). They are unlikely to occur under boulders as they require access to the water column (Tillin et al., 2020). Patches of Pacific oyster reefs have been recorded on littoral rock in Kent, southern England and on littoral sediments in southern England, the North Sea and the English Channel (Herbert et al., 2012, 2016; Morgan et al., 2021).

On littoral rock in Brittany, the Pacific oyster colonizes all intertidal levels from Mean High Water to Mean Low Water on sheltered (low energy), moderately exposed (moderate energy) and high energy rock shores (Herbert et al., 2012). However, in the northwest Pacific, Magallana gigas is commonly found on sheltered low energy littoral rock and has less than 10% cover on exposed high energy littoral rock shores (Herbert et al., 2012, 2016). Magallana gigas has not been found at extreme low water levels or subtidally beneath rocky habitats, as it has been in soft sediment areas (Herbert et al., 2012).

It has been suggested that recruitment is enhanced and abundances are higher in wave-sheltered conditions (Robinson et al., 2005; Ruesink, 2007 cited in Teschke et al., 2020; Tillin et al., 2020). Teschke et al. (2020) found the abundance of Magallana gigas was significantly higher at wave-protected sites within the artificial harbours of Helgoland, North Sea, compared to wave exposed sites outside the harbours. In addition, better growth and higher survival rates were observed at wave-protected sites, whereas mortality rates increased at wave exposed sites, due to the wave exposure causing dislodgement or detachment from the settlement substratum (Teschke et al., 2020; Tillin et al., 2020). Similarly, Bergstrom et al. (2021) noted that the occurrence of high densities of both Ostrea edulis and Magallana gigas decreased with increasing wave exposure.

In the Bay of Brest, Pacific oyster reefs on rock had a greater diversity, species richness and biomass than the surrounding bare rock habitats (Lejart & Hily, 2011). There was an increase in macrograzers, suspension feeders, carnivores, deposit and detritus feeders in the present on oyster reefs on rock compared with the surrounding bare rock (Lejart & Hily, 2011). Their results showed that 15% of species present in the oyster reefs on rock were characteristic of mud habitats (Lejart & Hily, 2011). Lejart & Hily (2011) found the surface available for epibenthic species in the Bay of Brest, increased 4-fold when oysters were present on rock, for every 1 m² of colonized substrata the oyster reef added 3.97 m² of surface area on rock. An increase in available settlement substrata, which is free of epibiota, could be why oyster reefs cause an increase in the macrofaunal abundance. Zwerschke et al. (2018) found at intertidal rocky sites and sites with gravel around the UK, Ireland and northern France, densities of Pacific oysters more than 10 m² had a different macrofaunal assemblage structure than sites with low density or no Magallana gigas. Their results showed a greater abundance of species such as barnacles in mud, rock and gravel sites when Pacific oysters were superabundant (oyster density more than 99 /m²). However, a decrease in the abundance of kelp, Fucus vesiculosus and periwinkle Littorina sp. was observed on the rocky shore sites colonized by the oysters (Zwerschke et al., 2018). In addition, the settlement of Magallana gigas in the barnacle zone of exposed rocky shores in the Strait of Georgia, Canada provided a greater surface area for settlement while neighbouring species at the rocky sites facilitated the survival of the Pacific oyster, by reducing predation and physical stress (Ruesink et al., 2005; Herbert et al., 2012).

Similarly, in rocky habitats, in Argentina, four epifaunal species (crabs Cyrtograpsus angulatus, Chasmagnathus granulatus, isopod Melita palmata and snail Helebia australis) showered higher densities and abundance within Magallana gigas beds than outside these areas (Escapa et al., 2004; Herbert et al., 2012).

The Australasian barnacle Austrominius (previously Elminius) modestus was introduced to British waters on ships during the Second World War. However, its overall effect on the dynamics of rocky shores has been small as Austrominius modestus has simply replaced some individuals of a group of co-occurring barnacles (Raffaelli & Hawkins, 1999).  Although present, monitoring indicates it has not outnumbered native barnacles in the Isle of Cumbrae (Gallagher et al., 2015) it may dominate in estuaries where it is more tolerant of lower salinities than Semibalanus balanoides (Gomes-Filho et al., 2010). 

Sensitivity assessment. The Pacific oyster Magallana gigas can colonize all intertidal levels on littoral rock (Herbert et al., 2012) and result in a change in the community depending on density (Ruesink et al., 2005; Lejart & Hily, 2011; Herbert et al., 2012; Zwerschke et al., 2018). The biotope may be altered or replaced. However, Magallana gigas populations may be limited to low densities due to wave exposed to moderately wave exposed conditions (Teschke et al., 2020). On steep or vertical examples of the biotope, densities of Magallana gigas may also be limited as these conditions are less suitable for colonization, suggesting a resistance of ‘Medium’. However, other flat and shallow-sloped examples of the biotope are more suitable for colonization. Therefore, a precautionary resistance of ‘Low’ is suggested for intertidal rock biotopes.  Resilience is likely to be ‘Very low’ as Magallana gigas would need to be physically removed for recovery to occur. Therefore, sensitivity is assessed as ‘High’ for intertidal rock biotopes.

Introduction of microbial pathogens

Benchmark. The introduction of relevant microbial pathogens or metazoan disease vectors to an area where they are currently not present (e.g. Martelia refringens and Bonamia, Avian influenza virus, viral Haemorrhagic Septicaemia virus). Further detail

Evidence

The characterizing species Semibalanus balanoides and Patella vulgata are considered subject to persistent, low levels of infection by pathogens and parasites. Barnacles are parasitised by a variety of organisms and, in particular, the cryptoniscid isopod Hemioniscus balani , in which heavy infestation can cause castration of the barnacle.  At usual levels of infestation, these are not considered to lead to high levels of mortality.  Patella vulgata has been reported to be infected by the protozoan Urceolaria patellae (Brouardel, 1948) at sites sheltered from extreme wave action in Orkney. Baxter (1984) found shells to be infested with two boring organisms, the polychaete Polydora ciliata and a siliceous sponge Cliona celata.

Sensitivity assessment. Based on the characterizing species, Semibalanus balanoides and Patella vulgata, and the lack of evidence for widespread, high levels of mortality due to microbial pathogens the biotope is considered to have 'High' resistance to this pressure and therefore 'High' resilience (by default), the biotope is therefore considered to be 'Not sensitive'. 

Removal of target species

Benchmark. Removal of species targeted by fishery, shellfishery or harvesting at a commercial or recreational scale. Further detail

Evidence

The species Mytilus edulis is too small and patchy in this biotope to be targeted for commercial harvesting. However, some unregulated recreational hand-gathering of this species and the limpet Patella vulgata may occur. Gathering of Mytilus edulis is not considered to affect the biotope as this species is present in low densities, as small individuals in cracks and crevices and is therefore not a key characterizing or structuring species. Patella vulgata, however, is a key characterizing and structuring species within this biotope. Patella vulgata grazing can control the character of the shore by grazing algae and newly settled barnacle larvae. Even a small, localised temporary absence of limpets (Southward, 1956; Southward, 1964; Hawkins, 1981; Hawkins et al., 1983) can alter the biological assemblage. Significant limpet kills resulting from the widespread use of dispersants after the Torrey Canyon oil spill dramatically altered rocky shore communities. Laminaria digitata, for example, was able to extend 2 m up the shore in the absence of limpets and there were dense growths of ephemeral green seaweeds followed by equally dense growth of fucoids (Southward & Southward, 1978; Hawkins & Southward, 1992).

Sensitivity assessment. Both variant biotopes LR.HLR.MusB.Sem.FvesR and LR.HLR.MusB.Sem.Sem are characterized by the limpet Patella vulgata. However, the sensitivity of these two variants is considered to vary. Patella vulgata is considered a key structuring species within the barnacle and limpet dominated biotope, LR HLR.MusB.Sem.Sem, as its grazing (coupled with wave action), maintains the bare rock surfaces allowing colonization by Semibalanus balanoides and prevents a denser algal turf developing. The resistance of Patella vulgata to removal is 'Low'  as this species is relatively large and is immobile and therefore easily found and removed.  Resilience (of the species and biotope) is assessed as 'Low' (10-20 years) as an alternate stable community may develop (see resilience section) so that sensitivity is assessed as 'High'. It should be noted that the assessment refers to a single event, sensitivity to persistent, on-going collection could be higher. Note, the removal of Patella vulgata may allow the variant LR.HLR.MusB.Sem.FvesR to develop. Hence, in the Sem.FvesR variant, resistance to the targeted removal of Patella vulgata is assessed as 'High',  resilience as 'High' (by default) and the LR.HLR.MusB.Sem.FvesR biotope is considered to be 'Not sensitive' to this pressure. The assessment for the more sensitive sub-biotope, LR.HLR.MusB.Sem.Sem is presented.

Removal of non-target species

Benchmark. Removal of features or incidental non-targeted catch (by-catch) through targeted fishery, shellfishery or harvesting at a commercial or recreational scale. Further detail

Evidence

The characterizing species Mytilus edulis is too small and patchy in this biotope to be targeted for commercial harvesting. However, some hand-gathering of this species and the edible periwinkle Littorina littorea may occur. As Littorina littorea are present only in low densities and the biotope is wave exposed, ecological effects such as the proliferation of algae are not predicted to arise from its removal.  Removal of the characterizing species, limpets and barnacles and the red seaweeds accidentally would alter the character of the biotope. The ecological services such as filtration and primary and secondary production provided by these species would also be lost.

Sensitivity assessment.  Removal of a large percentage of the characterizing species would alter the character of the biotope so that it was bare rock. Resistance is therefore assessed as ‘Low’ and resilience as ‘Medium’, so that sensitivity is assessed as ‘Medium’.