The Marine Life Information Network

Temperature increase (local)

Benchmark. A 5°C increase in temperature for one month, or 2°C for one year. Further detail

Evidence

Laminaria digitata is distributed from Brittany to the coast of Norway, while its UK distribution encompasses the whole of the UK coast (Blight & Thompson, 2008).  Its distribution suggests that the species would tolerate chronic temperature change (e.g. by 2°C for a year).  However, local populations may have acclimatized to local physical conditions meaning that populations at the extremes of the species’ range are less comparable than those populations in the middle of its range. Additionally, the distribution data of this species suggests it is a northern species, as such it will be vulnerable to increases in temperature and may be out-competed at its southern limits by other kelp species.

The thermal optimum of Laminaria digitata is between 10-15°C, with reproductive ability impaired to 20% at 18°C (Arzel, 1998). Therefore while the current population may not be affected, recruitment may be reduced.  Spore production only occurs between 5-10°C and is the most temperature sensitive stage of reproduction in Laminaria digitata. Outside this temperature range, reproduction is severely reduced and the species is at risk from local extinction in the long-term. In additional, a temperature increases to 22-23°C causes cell damage and death (Sundene, 1964; Bolton & Lüning, 1982). The sensitivity of this species therefore relies on the current sea temperatures of the specific location (Bartsch et al., 2013). A minimum of 10 weeks a year between 5-18°C is needed in order to ensure spore formation and hence reproduction (Bartsch et al., 2013).

Combining predicted sea surface temperate over the next century with the current distribution of Laminaria digitata, Merzouk & Johnson (2011) predict an expansion of its northern limits and localised extinctions across its southern range edge (Mid Bay of Biscay, Northern France and southern England; Birkett et al., 1998). Suggesting at sites where sea temperature is artificially increased as a result of anthropogenic activity (e.g. effluent output) local extinction of the biotope may occur (Raybaud et al., 2013) especially if combined with high UK summer sea temperatures in southern examples of this biotope (Bartsch et al., 2013). In southern examples of IR.MIR.KT.LdigT, Laminaria digitata may also be out-competed by it’s Lusitanian competitor Laminaria ochroleuca which is regionally abundant across the south UK coastline (Smale et al., 2014).

Little direct evidence was found to assess the effects of increased temperature on piddocks and the assessment is based on distribution records and evidence for spawning in response to temperature changes. Pholas dactylus occurs in the Mediterranean and the East Atlantic, from Norway to Cape Verde Islands (Micu, 2007).   Barnea candida is distributed from Norway to the Mediterranean and West Africa (Gofas, 2015). The current distribution of Hiatella arctica is predominantly arctic and boreal (Sejr et al., 2004; Gordillo, 2001) and palaeecological reviews describe the genus as ‘consistently linked to cool temperate and polar regions’ (Gordillo, 2001). However, populations of Hiatella arctica occur in the Mediterrannean and have clearly acclimated to the warmer temperatures (Oberlechner, 2008). Laboratory experiments on filtration rates of Hiatella arctica found that activity was strongly linked to temperature (Ali, 1970). Activity rates rose steadily between 0 ^oC to a maximum between 15 ^oC and 17 ^oC and fell sharply to almost no activity at 25 ^oC  (Ali, 1970).  Although activity may be reduced Hiatella arctica have very low metabolic rates and may be able to sustain a  period of reduced activity. Regression models developed by Bourget et al. (2003) found that temperature and water transparency (measured in metres and indicating the level of inorganic suspended solids) explained only 40% of the variation in biomass of Hiatella arctica fouling navigation buoys in the Gulf of St Lawrence system (Canada). These findings suggest that other variables play a more significant role in determining settlement, survival and growth over a year in this system. However the models did indicate that biomass is higher where temperatures were greater (around 14 ^oC) although a causal link was not identified (Bourget et al., (2003).

There is some evidence that temperature influences the timing of reproduction in Pholas dactylus, which usually spawns between July and August. Increased summer temperatures in 1982 induced spawning in July on the south coast of England (Knight, 1984). Spawning of the piddock Petricolaria pholadiformis is initiated by increasing water temperature (>18 °C) (Duval, 1963a), so elevated temperatures outside of usual seasons may disrupt normal spawning periods. The spawning of Barnea candida was also reported to be disrupted by changes in temperature. Barnea candida normally spawns in September when temperatures are dropping (El-Maghraby, 1955). However, a rise in temperature in late June of 1956, induced spawning in some specimens of Barnea candida (Duval, 1963b). Disruption from established spawning periods, caused by temperature changes, may be detrimental to the survival of recruits as other factors influencing their survival may not be optimal, and some mortality may result. Established populations may otherwise remain unaffected by elevated temperatures.

Littler & Kauker (1984) suggested that the crustose bases of Corallina officinalis are more resistant of desiccation or heating than fronds. Lüning (1990) reported that Corallina officinalis from Helgoland survived one week exposure to temperatures between 0 °C and 28 °C. Latham (2008) investigated the effects of temperature stress on Corallina officinalis through laboratory tests on samples collected in the Autumn in Devon, (England) from rockpools. Samples kept at 5, 15, 20 and 25 ^oC showed little change in chemicals produced in reaction to thermal stress and no bleaching suggesting the temperatures in that range had not induced stress reactions.

In an exceptionally hot summer (1983, with an increase of between 4.8 and 8.5 °C), Hawkins & Hartnoll (1985) observed that understorey red algae showed signs of damage with bleached Corallina officinalis observed around the edges of pools due to desiccation. Occasional damaged specimens of Palmaria palmata, Osmundea pinnatifida and Mastocarpus stellatus were observed. Palmaria palmata does well in low temperatures, with an optimum between 6 and 15°C, consistent with a distribution in northern temperate and arctic waters. This species is also found in warmer temperate waters as far south as Portugal in Europe and with localized large populations in northern Spain (Garbary et al., 2012 and references therein). Temperatures at or above 15 ^oC may induce physiological stress (Werner & Dring, 2011; Morgan et al., 1980). In tank cultures of Palmaria palmata at 20°C and above, all plants were dead within a week (Morgan et al., 1980).  Populations may be acclimated to typical conditions but it is likely that Palmaria palmata may be bleached or damaged by higher than usual temperatures.

Sensitivity assessment. Some of the understorey of red algae, such as Palmaria palmata may be lost during acute temperature increases if these occur in the summer when plants are already close to the limit of thermal tolerances, however, this will not alter classification of the biotope. The global distribution of the piddock species, Petricolaria pholadiformis, Pholas dactylus and Barnea candida, suggest that these species can tolerate warmer waters than currently experienced in the UK and may therefore be tolerant of a chronic increase in temperature. Short-term acute increases may, (depending on timing) interfere with temperature driven spawning cues for Laminaria digitata and piddocks (and possibly other species). The effects will depend on seasonality of occurrence and the species affected. Adult populations may be unaffected and, in such relatively long-lived species, an unfavourable recruitment may be compensated in a following year. Resistance to an acute change in temperature is therefore assessed as ‘High’ (based on Laminaria digitata and piddocks) and recovery as ‘High’ (by default) and the biotope is considered ‘Not Sensitive’. For all species it should be noted that the timing of acute changes may lead to greater impacts, temperature increases in the warmest months may exceed thermal tolerances whilst changes in colder periods may stress individuals acclimated to the lower temperatures.

Temperature decrease (local)

Benchmark. A 5°C decrease in temperature for one month, or 2°C for one year. Further detail

Evidence

The thermal optimum of Laminaria digitata is between 10-15°C, with reproductive ability impaired to 20% at 18°C (Arzel, 1998). Therefore while the adult population may not be affected by changes at the pressure benchmark, recruitment may be reduced. Spore production only occurs between 5-10°C and is the most temperature sensitive stage of reproduction in Laminaria digitata. Outside this temperature range, reproduction is severely reduced and the species is at risk from local extinction in the short-term. In additional, a temperature increase to 22-23°C causes cell damage and death (Sundene, 1964; Bolton & Lüning, 1982). During an exceptionally warm summer in Norway, Sundene (1964) reported the destruction of Laminaria digitata plants exposed to temperatures of 22-23°C. The sensitivity of this species therefore relies on the current sea temperatures of the specific location (Bartsch et al., 2013). A minimum of 10 weeks a year between 5-18°C is needed in order to ensure spore formation and hence reproduction (Bartsch et al., 2013).

Little empirical evidence was found to assess the effects of decreased temperature on piddocks and the assessment is based on distribution records and evidence for spawning in response to temperature changes. Pholas dactylus occurs in the Mediterranean and the East Atlantic, from Norway to Cape Verde Islands (Micu, 2007).   Barnea candida is distributed from Norway to the Mediterranean and West Africa (Gofas, 2015). Temperature changes have been observed to initiate spawning by Pholas dactylus, which usually spawns between July and August. Increased summer temperatures in 1982 induced spawning in July on the south coast of England (Knight, 1984). Spawning of Petricolaria pholadiformis is initiated by increasing water temperature (>18 °C) (Duval, 1963a), so decreased temperatures may disrupt normal spawning periods where this coincides with the reproductive season. The spawning of Barnea candida was also reported to be disrupted by changes in temperature. Barnea candida normally spawns in September when temperatures are dropping (El-Maghraby, 1955). Disruption from established spawning periods, caused by decreased temperatures may be detrimental to the survival of recruits as other factors influencing their survival may not be optimal, and some mortality may result. Established populations may otherwise remain unaffected by decreased temperatures.

Gordillo & Aitken (2000) in a review of environmental factors relevant to re-interpreting Late Quaternary environments from fossil collections suggest that Hiatella arctica is eurythermal, based on Aitken (1990) and Peacock (1993).  The current distribution of Hiatella arctica is predominantly arctic and boreal (Sejr et al., 2004; Gordillo, 2001) and palaeecological reviews describe the genus as ‘consistently linked to cool temperate and polar regions’ (Gordillo, 2001) suggesting that within temperate regions this species would not be sensitive to a decrease in temperature at the pressure benchmark. Regression models developed by Bourget et al. (2003) found that temperature and water transparency (measured in metres and indicating the level of inorganic suspended solids) explained only 40% of the variation in biomass of Hiatella arctica fouling navigation buoys in the Gulf of St Lawrence system (Canada). These findings suggest that other variables play a more significant role in determining settlement, survival and growth over a year in this system. However the models did indicate that biomass is higher where temperatures were greater (around 14 ^oC) although a causal link was not identified (Bourget et al., (2003). 

Lüning (1990) reported that Corallina officinalis from Helgoland survived 0 °C when exposed for one week. New Zealand specimens were found to tolerate -4 °C (Frazer et al., 1988). Lüning (1990) suggested that most littoral algal species were tolerant of cold and freezing.

Sensitivity assessment.   The global distribution of the piddock species and Hiatella arctica suggest that these species can tolerate cooler waters than currently experienced in the UK and may therefore be tolerant of a chronic decrease in temperature at the benchmark level. Decreased temperatures may, depending on timing, interfere with spawning cues which appear to be temperature driven.  The effects will depend on seasonality of occurrence and the species affected. Adult populations may be unaffected and, in these relatively long-lived species, an unfavourable recruitment may be compensated for in a following year. The dominant kelp Laminaria digitata is thought to be a northern species and likely to retreat north as a result of climate change. Therefore, it is unlikely to be sensitive to a reduction in temperature at the benchmark level. Several members of the red algal community are found from the lower shore to the sublittoral, and probably not sensitive to changes at the benchmark level, as if some individual species may reduce in abundance or be lost, the diverse red algal community will remain.  Based on the characterizing species, resistance to an acute and chronic decrease in temperature at the pressure benchmark is therefore assessed as ‘High’ and recovery as ‘High’ (within two years) and the biotope is considered ‘Not Sensitive’. Based on the characterizing and associated species, this biotope is considered to have ‘High’ resistance and ‘High resilience (by default) to this pressure and is therefore considered to be ‘Not sensitive’.  The timing of changes and seasonal weather could result in greater impacts on species.

Salinity increase (local)

Benchmark. A increase in one MNCR salinity category above the usual range of the biotope or habitat. Further detail

Evidence

Kelps are tolerant to short-term daily fluctuation in salinity and are recorded as tolerating 5-60 psu; however they are much less tolerant to long-term changes with growth and photosynthetic rates declining either side of 20-45 psu (Gordillo et al., 2002, Karsten, 2007).  Despite this tolerance, Laminaria digitata is considered to be a stenohaline species, and this biotope is only found in conditions of full salinity (Connor et al., 2004). Therefore, other species probably out-compete Laminaria digitata at the limits of its salinity tolerance, meaning that despite the biotope’s tolerance under conditions of no competition, under natural conditions this biotope is unlikely to occur in conditions above 40 psu.

No evidence for the range of physiological tolerances to salinity changes were found for piddocks.  Filipov et al., (2003, abstract only) tested the salinity tolerances of Hiatella arctica obtained from the White Sea. The salinity tolerance of individuals kept at 25 ppt was 17-36 ppt. Acclimation of Hiatella arctica allowed them to adapt to higher or lower salinities with the potential tolerance range of acclimated individuals assessed as 13-42 ppt.

Corallina officinalis is found in tide pools where salinities may fluctuate markedly during exposure to the air. Kinne (1971) cites maximal growth rates for Corallina officinalis between 33 and 38 psu in Texan lagoons. Laboratory experiments have defined the upper and lethal lower limits for Palmaria palmata as 15 psu and 50 psu, (Karsten et al., 2003) with optimal salinity defined as 23-34 psu (Robbins, 1978). No evidence was found to assess the salinity tolerances of Osmundea pinnatifida. Edyvean & Ford (1984b) suggest that populations of Lithophyllum incrustans are affected by temperature changes and salinity and that temperature and salinity ‘shocks’ induce spawning but no information on thresholds was provided (Edyvean & Ford, 1984b).  Populations of Lithophyllum incrustans were less stable in rockpools with a smaller volume of water that were more exposed to temperature and salinity changes due to lower buffering capacity. Sexual plants (or the spores that give rise to them) were suggested to be more susceptible than asexual plants to extremes of local environmental variables (temperature, salinity etc.) as they occur with greater frequency at sites where temperature and salinity were more stable (Edyvean & Ford, 1984b).

 Sensitivity assessment.  Although some increases in salinity may be tolerated by the species present these are generally short-term and mitigated during tidal inundation.  This biotope is considered, based on distribution of  Laminaria digitata, piddocks and the associated red algal species on the mid to lower shore to be sensitive to a persistent increase in salinity to > 40 ppt (although Hiatella arctica is considered to have greater tolerance). Resistance is therefore assessed as ‘Low’ and recovery as ‘Medium’ (based on recovery of piddocks, fucoids and algal turfs following restoration of usual salinity). Sensitivity is therefore assessed as ‘Medium'.

Salinity decrease (local)

Benchmark. A decrease in one MNCR salinity category above the usual range of the biotope or habitat. Further detail

Evidence

Birkett et al. (1998b) suggested that kelps are stenohaline, in that they do not tolerate wide fluctuations in salinity and require regular salinities of 30-35 psu to maintain optimum growth rates. Growth rate may be adversely affected if the kelp plant is subjected to periodic salinity stress. Laminaria digitata tolerates a large salinity range within a 24 hour period (5-60 psu; Karsten, 2007).  At the extremes of this range; decreases in photosynthetic rates are evident, particularly at low salinities (Gordillo et al., 2002).  In the study by Karsten (2007), kelp thalli were kept at constant salinities for 5 days, with their photosynthetic rates measured after 2 and 5 days. The lower salinity limit for Laminaria digitata lies between 10 and 15 psu. On the Norwegian coast, Sundene (1964) found healthy Laminaria digitata plants growing between 15 and 25 psu. Axelsson & Axelsson (1987) indicated damage of the plants’ plasma membranes occurs when salinity is below 20 or above 50 psu. Localized, long-term reductions in salinity, to below 20 psu, may result in the loss of kelp beds in affected areas (Birkett et al., 1998b).

Laboratory experiments have defined the upper and lethal lower limits for Palmaria palmata as 15 psu and 50 psu, (Karsten et al., 2003) with optimal salinity defined as 23-34 psu (Robbins, 1978). In-situ Palmaria palmata from the Arctic Kongsfjord (Spitsbergen) exposed for four days to salinities of 15 psu following freshwater run-off suffered high levels of mortality (Karsten et al., 2003). In Danish waters where salinities are lowered by freshwater inputs, cultivation experiments found that Palmaria palmata growth over a seven month period was greatest at a site where mean salinity was 21±3 psu, while no growth occurred at a site where mean salinity was 17±5 psu (Bak, 2014). A decrease in salinity may lead to replacement of more sensitive red algal turf forming species by those more tolerant of the changed conditions. Chondrus crispus occurs in areas of 'low' salinity. For example, the species occurs in estuaries in New Hampshire, USA, where surface water salinity varies from 16-32 psu (Mathieson & Burns, 1975). Mathieson & Burns (1971) recorded maximum photosynthesis of Chondrus crispus in culture at 24 psu, but rates were comparable at 8, 16 and 32 psu. Tasende & Fraga (1999) cultured Chondrus crispus spores from north west Spain and concluded that growth was correlated with salinity between 23 and 33 psu. Corallina officinalis is found in tide pools where salinities may fluctuate markedly during exposure to the air. Kinne (1971) cites maximal growth rates for Corallina officinalis between 33 and 38 psu in Texan lagoons.  Edyvean & Ford (1984b) suggest that populations of Lithophyllum incrustans are affected by temperature changes and salinity and that temperature and salinity ‘shocks’ induce spawning but no information on thresholds was provided (Edyvean & Ford, 1984b). Populations of Lithophyllum incrustans were less stable in tide pools with a smaller volume of water that were more exposed to temperature and salinity changes due to lower buffering capacity. Sexual plants (or the spores that give rise to them) were suggested to be more susceptible than asexual plants to extremes of local environmental variables (temperature, salinity etc.) as they occur with greater frequency at sites where temperature and salinity were more stable (Edyvean & Ford, 1984b).

No information was found for the salinity tolerance of the of Pholas dactylus. A change in full to reduced (18-30 ppt) salinity (the pressure benchmark) may lead to changes in the composition of the piddock population with replacement of Pholas dactylus (if it is sensitive) by piddocks more tolerant of lower salinities particularly Petricolaria pholadiformis.   Petricolaria pholadiformis is particularly common off the Essex and Thames estuary, e.g. the River Medway (Bamber, 1985) suggesting tolerance of brackish waters.  Zenetos et al. (2009) suggest that at all sites where Petricolaria pholadiformis has been found there is some freshwater inflow into the sea. According to the literature, the species in its native range inhabits environments with salinities between 29 and 35ppt, while in the Baltic Sea it is reported from salinities 10-30 psu (Gollasch & Mecke, 1996, cited from Zenetos et al. 2009). According to Castagna & Chanley (1973, cited from Zenetos et al. 2009) the lower salinity tolerance of Petricolaria pholadiformis is 7.5-10 psu. It thus appears that reduced salinity facilitates its establishment (Zenetos et al., 2009).  Barnea candida is reported to extend in to estuarine environments in salinities down to 20 psu (Fish & Fish, 1996). Filipov et al., (2003, abstract only) tested the salinity tolerances of Hiatella arctica obtained from the White Sea. The salinity tolerance of individuals kept at 25 ppt was 17-36 ppt. Acclimation of Hiatella arctica allowed them to adapt to higher or lower salinities with the potential tolerance range of acclimated individuals assessed as 13-42 ppt. Gordillo & Aitken (2000) in a review of environmental factors relevant to re-interpreting Late Quaternary environments from fossil collections suggest that the normal minimum salinity tolerance of Hiatella arctica is 20 ppt, based on Aitken (1990) and Peacock (1993).

Sensitivity assessment, Most of the literature found on this topic considered short-term (days to weeks) impacts of changes to salinity whilst the benchmark refers to a longer-term change.  Prolonged reduction in salinity at the pressure benchmark is likely to reduce the species richness of the biotope due to loss of less tolerant piddock species, some red algae and some intolerant invertebrates. It is considered that the benchmark decrease in salinity would result in mortality of the key characterizing Laminaria digitata species in biotopes that were previously fully marine and the piddocks or Hiatella arctica may be impacted. Biotope resistance is therefore assessed as 'Low' as the algae and piddocks are a key characterizing component and resilience is assessed as 'Medium', so that biotope sensitivity is assessed as 'Medium'.

Water flow (tidal current) changes (local)

Benchmark. A change in peak mean spring bed flow velocity of between 0.1 m/s to 0.2 m/s for more than one year. Further detail

Evidence

This biotope occurs in a range of water flow conditions from moderately strong (0.5-1.5 meters /second) to weak (<0.5 m/s) (negligible) (Connor et al., 2004), indicating that the characterizing species can tolerate a range of flow speeds.

In Lough Ine in Ireland, Laminaria digitata forms dense forests in the fast flowing water of the Rapids where water speeds vary from 4-6 knots (ca 2-3 m/s) (Bassindale et al., 1948). Laminaria digitata is also found in very strong flows (>3.87 m/s) although it is often out-competed by Alaria esculenta. The biotope is not found in areas where sand scour occurs (associated with high water flow rates).  Therefore, Laminaria digitata and associated community will probably not be affected by a change of 0.1-0.2 m/s in peak mean spring bed flow velocity.  Laminaria digitata partially achieves survival in a range of water flow conditions by variations in blade morphology, with fronds narrower and more digitate where water flow rates are higher (Sundene, 1964).  In a laboratory study, this morphological adaptation was attributed to longitudinal stress with exposure to this stress over 6 weeks resulting in narrower blades and a significantly higher rate of cell elongation, compared to those plants that had not experienced the same stress.  This plasticity would serve to decrease the risk of thallus damage in areas of greater exposure or in stormier conditions (Gerard, 1987). Biogenic habitat structures reduce the effects of water flows on individuals by slowing and disrupting flow. The fronds of Laminaria digitata and the red algal turf will reduce the flow experienced by the turf. Boller and Carrington (2006), for example, found that the canopy created by the taller turf of Chondrus cripsus reduced drag forces on individual plants by 15-65%. The crustose holdfasts of Osmundea pinnatifida, Corallina officinalis and the coralline crusts are securely attached and as these are relatively flat, are subject less drag than upright fronds and are likely to tolerate changes in water flows at the pressure benchmark. Moderate water movement is beneficial to seaweeds as it carries a supply of nutrients and gases to the plants and removes waste products. However, if flow becomes too strong, plants may become dislodged.

Propagule dispersal in kelps and red algae is in part governed by the local hydrodynamic regime; increased turbulence is associated with an increase in biotope connectivity and a loss of larvae from the local system. A decrease in wave and current mediated water flow is identified by lower connectivity with other sites and a higher settlement rate within the local biotope (Robins et al., 2013).  Therefore an increase in water flow could result in larval loss from the local biotope, which if not balanced by a larval influx from another geographically different population, could result in a shift in the age structure of the population and a dearth of young alga.

Established adult piddocks are, to a large extent, protected from direct effects of increased water flow, owing to their environmental position within the substratum. Increases or decreases in flow rates may affect suspension feeding by altering the delivery of suspended particles or the efficiency of filter feeding.  Adult piddocks may become exposed should physical erosion occur at a greater rate than burrowing, and lost from the substratum. At higher densities bioerosion by piddocks may destabilise the substratum increasing vulnerability to erosion and resulting in loss of habitat and Fucus serratus and red algal turf.

Sensitivity assessment. Based on the exposure of Laminaria digitata and red algal turfs and piddocks to a range of water flows in this and other biotopes  (Connor et al., 2004), the characterizing species are considered to be unimpacted by changes within this range as long as these do not lead to increased erosion of the substratum. Resistance is therefore assessed as 'High' and resilience as 'High' (based on no impact to recover from), so that the biotope is considered to be ‘Not sensitive’.

Emergence regime changes

Benchmark.  1) A change in the time covered or not covered by the sea for a period of ≥1 year or 2) an increase in relative sea level or decrease in high water level for ≥1 year. Further detail

Evidence

This biotope occurs in the shallow sublittoral and is therefore exposed to changes in emergence. Increased emergence will expose the biotope to air for longer periods leading to drying. Laminaria digitata is relatively resistant to desiccation, surviving up to 40% water loss (Dring & Brown, 1982).  The desiccation tolerance of Laminaria digitata allow beds to extend a further 2 cm into the eulittoral zone where grazing pressure is removed (Southward & Southward, 1978). When exposed to the air, kelp canopies buffer the effects of high temperatures and water loss on organisms below their fronds with substratum temperatures on average 8-10°C lower under the canopy than bare rock, additionally decreasing water loss by >45% (Bertness et al, 1999).

An increase in the benchmark level for air exposure may result in the depression of the biotope’s upper limit; as this species‘ lower limit is set by competition with Laminaria hyperborea (Hawkins & Harkin, 1985). The upper, landward limits of Laminaria digitata biotopes are generally set by competition with the brown algae Fucus serratus (Hawkins & Harkin, 1985); therefore, a decrease in the benchmark level for air exposure may result in the extension of the biotope’s upper limit.  The main driver of competition between Fucus serratus and Laminaria digitata is based on the ability of Fucus serratus to control its respiration rates based on its desiccation rates, which Laminaria digitata is unable to do.  Therefore, longer periods of emergence may result in a compression of Laminaria digitata’s extent as it is out-competed by Fucus serratus at its upper limit. The kelp is able to resist both an increase and decrease in emergence; however this resitance is based on the free movement of this species within its environmental optima, shifting up or down the shore. 

Adult piddocks and the algae that characterize this biotope have no mobility and cannot therefore migrate up or down shore to adapt to changes in emergence. Within the chalk substratum, adult piddocks will be afforded some protection from desiccation and temperature increases, following increased emergence, by their burrows which will retain some moisture. The shells of piddocks do not completely enclose the animals however , and therefore cannot be closed to prevent water loss. The tolerance of piddocks to increased and decreased emergence varies between species.  Pholas dactylus inhabits the shallow sub-tidal and lower shore and Barnea candida and Petricolaria pholadiformis live slightly higher up the shore than Pholas dactylus (Duval, 1977) .  During extended periods of exposure, Pholas dactylus squirt some water from their inhalant siphon and extend their gaping siphons into the air (Knight, 1984). This may result in increased detection and predation by birds.   Hiatella arctica occur within the intertidal and subtidally and that the presence of suitable substratum rather than emergence regime is a more significant factor determining the distribution. Red algal turfs and piddocks and other boring infauna are found higher on the shore in the Fucus serratus biotope, LR.MLR.BF.Fser.Pid; an increase in emergence is therefore considered unlikely to affect these components of the biotope but lead to biotope reclassification (where Fucus serratus replaces Laminaria digitata).

Sensitivity assessment. This pressure is a key driver of biotope extent because the upper and lower limits of this species are set by inter-species competition.  In the direct footprint of the impact resistance is, therefore, probably ‘Low’ based on loss of Laminaria digitata (loss of 25-75%). Resilience is suggested as ‘High’ (2-10 years) following restoration of the emergence regime. This biotope is, therefore, considered to have ‘Medium’ sensitivity to the pressure.

Wave exposure changes (local)

Benchmark. A change in near shore significant wave height of >3% but <5% for more than one year. Further detail

Evidence

No direct evidence was found to assess sensitivity to this pressure.  The biotope typically occurs in moderately wave exposed locations (Connor et al., 2004). The piddocks and Hiatella arctica are unlikely to be directly affected by changes in wave exposure, owing to their environmental position within the substratum, which protects them.  Trudgill & Crabtree (1987) found Hiatella arctica at both sheltered and wave exposed sites, suggesting that substratum, rather than wave action is a more significant factor determining distribution. On chalk and clay substrates, it is possible however, that wave action actively erodes the substratum at a faster rate than the piddocks can burrow leaving them exposed to predators or displaced. At higher densities bioerosion by piddocks may destabilise the substratum increasing vulnerability to erosion. The structure of kelps enables them to survive a range of wave conditions from exposed to sheltered conditions (Connor et al., 2004; Harder et al., 2006).  Physiological differences between kelps are evident between low wave exposure and medium-high wave exposure.  The greatest wet weight of Laminaria digitata occurs at low wave exposure (mean significant wave height <0.4 m) decreasing by a mean of 83% in medium to high wave exposures (mean significant wave height >0.4m; Gorman et al., 2013).  At medium to high levels of wave exposure, Laminaria digitata biomass has been shown to decrease by 83% in the field (Wernberg & Thomsen, 2005). In areas of high wave exposure Laminaria digitata may extend its upper limits into the lower eulittoral zone.

A flexible stipe and low profile holdfast allows Laminaria digitata to flourish in moderately to strongly wave exposed areas (as defined by MNCR, Connor et al., 2004).  The absence of this biotope from extreme wave exposure and sheltered sites indicates a failure of the biotope to compete with other biotopes for space.  An Alaria esculenta dominated biotope (IR.HIR.KFaR.Ala.Ldig) typically replaces a Laminaria digitata dominated biotope under conditions of extreme wave exposure (Connor et al., 2004), while in sheltered conditions, Laminaria saccharina replaces Laminaria digitata  and the biotope IR.LIR.K.Slat.Ldig becomes prevelant (Connor et al., 2004).

The physiology of seaweeds grown at exposed sites differs morphologically to those at sheltered sites with those exposed to greater wave action. A transplant experiment of Laminaria digitata, from exposed to sheltered sites resulted in a changed morphology with the frond widening, while individuals transplanted from sheltered to exposed sites became thinner and more streamlined (Sundene, 1964; Gerard, 1987). This morphological plasticity is evident during the spore stage; because of this it is suggested that if wave height is increased or decreased the kelp will adapt morphologically over time to optimise its survival in the new environment. As water velocity increases algae can also flex and reconfigure to reduce the size of the alga when aligned with the direction of flow, this minimises drag and hence the risk of dislodgement (Boller & Carrington, 2007). Within a canopy the friction between the fronds and water slows flow reducing drag. On exposed shores, larger, dense patches of the red turf forming algae Osmundea pinnatifida were more able to withstand increased wave action in winter than small patches, which were severely damaged, presumably due to the number and density of stolons (Prathep, 2001) These characteristics allow these species to persist on shores that experience a range of wave action levels. Flat growth forms also minimise drag and crustose bases and encrusting corallines are able to withstand high levels of water movement. Colonies of Lithophyllum incrustans appear to thrive in conditions exposed to strong water movement and Irvine & Chamberlain (1994) observed that the species is best developed on wave exposed shores.

Sensitivity assessment. The algal turf and piddocks are also considered to have 'High' resistance to changes at the pressure benchmark where these do not lead to increased erosion of the substratum. The structure of Laminaria digitata makes it resistant to changes in wave action, although large sudden increases in wave action through events such as storms may result in the removal of individuals from the habitat. Also, an increase in wave exposure to very or extremely exposed and a reduction in exposure to sheltered conditions is likely to result in a change in kelp species present and the character of the biotope. However, a 3-5% change in significant wave height is unlikely to be significant and this biotope is therefore considered as having ‘High’ resistance to changes in wave height at the benchmark level. Resilience is also considered as ‘High’ at the benchmark, as there is no impact to recover from.  Therefore, this biotope is ’Not sensitive’ at the benchmark level.

Transition elements & organo-metal contamination

Benchmark. Exposure of marine species or habitat to one or more relevant contaminants via uncontrolled releases or incidental spills. Further detail

Evidence

This pressure is Not assessed but evidence is presented where available.

However, exposure to contaminants at levels greater than the benchmark may lead to impacts, although no evidence was found for sensitivity of piddocks. Bryan (1984) suggested that the general order for heavy metal toxicity in seaweeds is: Organic Hg > inorganic Hg > Cu > Ag > Zn > Cd > Pb. Cole et al. (1999) reported that Hg was very toxic to macrophytes. The sub-lethal effects of Hg (organic and inorganic) on the sporelings of another intertidal red algae, Plumaria elegans, were reported by Boney (1971), where 100% growth inhibition was caused by 1 ppm Hg in his study. However, no information concerning the effects of heavy metals on Palmaria palmata was found. Heavy metals have the potential to accumulate in plant tissue, therefore it may take some time for tissue levels to fall before recovery can begin.

Hydrocarbon & PAH contamination

Benchmark. Exposure of marine species or habitat to one or more relevant contaminants via uncontrolled releases or incidental spills. Further detail

Evidence

This pressure is Not assessed but evidence is presented where available.

However, exposure to contaminants at levels greater than the benchmark may lead to impacts, although no evidence was found for sensitivity of piddocks. O'Brien & Dixon (1976) suggested that red algae were the most sensitive group of algae to oil or dispersant contamination, possibly due to the susceptibility of phycoerythrins to destruction, but that the filamentous forms were the most sensitive. Laboratory studies of the effects of oil and dispersants on several red algae species, including Palmaria palmata (Grandy, 1984 cited in Holt et al. 1995) concluded that they were all sensitive to oil/ dispersant mixtures, with little differences between adults, sporelings, diploid or haploid life stages.

Laminaria digitata is less susceptible to coating than some other seaweeds because of its preference for exposed locations where wave action will rapidly dissipate oil. The effects of oil accumulation on the thalli are mitigated by the perennial growth of kelps. No significant effects of the Amoco Cadiz spill were observed for Laminaria populations and the World Prodigy spill of 922 tons of oil in Narragansett Bay had no discernible effects on Laminaria digitata (Peckol et al., 1990). Mesocosm studies in Norwegian waters showed that chronic low level oil pollution (25 µg/L) reduced growth rates in Laminaria digitata but only in the second and third years of growth (Bokn, 1985). Where exposed to direct contact with fresh hydrocarbons, encrusting calcareous algae have a high intolerance. The sensitivities of the faunal components of the kelp bed are not known although amphipods normally suffer high mortality in oil affected areas. Analysis of kelp holdfast fauna after the Sea Empress oil spill in Milford Haven illustrated decreases in number of species, diversity and abundance at sites nearest the spill (SEEEC, 1998).

Synthetic compound contamination

Benchmark. Exposure of marine species or habitat to one or more relevant contaminants via uncontrolled releases or incidental spills. Further detail

Evidence

This pressure is Not assessed but evidence is presented where available.

However, exposure to synthetic chemical at levels greater than the benchmark may lead to impacts, although no evidence was found for sensitivity of piddocks. O'Brien & Dixon (1976) suggested that red algae were the most sensitive group of algae to oil contamination, although the filamentous forms were the most sensitive. Laboratory studies of the effects of oil and dispersants on several red algae species (Grandy, 1984 cited in Holt et al., 1995) concluded that they were all intolerant of oil/ dispersant mixtures, with little differences between adults, sporelings, diploid or haploid life stages. Cole et al. (1999) suggested that herbicides, such as simazina and atrazine were very toxic to macrophytes. Hoare & Hiscock (1974) noted that all red algae was excluded from Amlwch Bay, Anglesey by acidified halogenated effluent discharge.

Radionuclide contamination

Benchmark. An increase in 10µGy/h above background levels. Further detail

Evidence

No evidence was found to assess this pressure at the benchmark. Algae bioaccumulate radionuclides (with extent depending on the radionuclide and the algae species). Adverse effects have not been reported at low levels.

Introduction of other substances

Benchmark. Exposure of marine species or habitat to one or more relevant contaminants via uncontrolled releases or incidental spills. Further detail

Evidence

This pressure is Not assessed.

De-oxygenation

Benchmark. Exposure to dissolved oxygen concentration of less than or equal to 2 mg/l for one week (a change from WFD poor status to bad status). Further detail

Evidence

Specific information concerning oxygen consumption and reduced oxygen tolerances were not found for important characterizing species within the biotope. Cole et al. (1999) suggested possible adverse effects on marine species below 4 mg O₂/l and probable adverse effects below 2mg O₂/l .

This biotope would only be exposed to low oxygen in the water column intermittently during periods of tidal immersion. In addition, in areas of wave exposure and/or moderately strong current flow, low oxygen levels in the water are unlikely to persist for very long as oxygen levels will be recharged by the incorporation of oxygen in the air into the water column or flushing with oxygenated waters.  

Duval (1963a) observed that conditions within the borings of Petricolaria pholadiformis were anaerobic and lined with a loose blue/black sludge, suggesting that the species may be relatively tolerant to conditions of reduced oxygen.

Reduced oxygen concentrations have been shown to inhibit both photosynthesis and respiration in macroalgae (Kinne, 1977). Despite this, macroalgae are thought to buffer the environmental conditions of low oxygen, thereby acting as a refuge for organisms in oxygen depleted regions especially if the oxygen depletion is short-term (Frieder et al., 2012).

Sensitivity Assessment.  Reduced oxygen levels are likely to inhibit photosynthesis and respiration but not cause a loss of the macroalgae population directly. In wave exposed and tidally flushed habitats, oxygen levels are likely to be recharged by water mixing and the effects of deoxygenation are likely to be mitigated. Therefore, resistance is assessed as ‘High’ and resilience is considered to be ‘High’ (based on no impact), and the biotope is considered ‘Not sensitive’ at the pressure benchmark.

Nutrient enrichment

Benchmark. Compliance with WFD criteria for good status. Further detail

Evidence

This pressure relates to increased levels of nitrogen, phosphorus and silicon in the marine environment compared to background concentrations.  The benchmark is set at compliance with WFD criteria for good status, based on nitrogen concentration (UKTAG, 2014).  No evidence was found to assess the sensitivity of piddocks to this pressure and it is unlikely that they, and other animal species present in the biotope, would be directly affected by this pressure. 

High ambient levels of phosphate and nitrogen enhance spore formation in a number of Laminaria species (Nimura et al., 2002), but will eventually inhibit spore production, particularly at the limits of temperature tolerances as seen in Saccharina latissima (studied as Laminaria saccharina; Yarish et al., 1990). Laminaria digitata seems to follow this trend with a growth peak occurring in conjunction with nutrient upwelling from deeper waters in Norway (Gévaert et al., 2001). Macroalgal growth is generally nitrogen-limited in the summer, as illustrated by the growth rates of Laminaria digitata between an oligotrophic and a eutrophic site in Abroath, Scotland (Davison et al., 1984). Laminaria digitata does not accumulate the significant internal nutrient reserves seen in some other kelp. Higher growth rates have been associated with alga situated close to sewage outfalls. However, after removal of sewage pollution in the Firth of Forth, Laminaria digitata became abundant on rocky shores from which they had previously been absent (Read et al., 1983). Enhancement of coastal nutrients is likely to favour those species with more rapid growth rates including turf forming algae (Gorgula & Connell, 2004) which could explain Laminaria digitata absence from the Firth of Forth.  Additionally, epiphytic abundance and biomass on Laminaria longicruris increases under a eutrophic regime decreasing the ability to photosynthesis and withstand pressure from water movement as drag increases (Scheibling et al., 1999).

Sensitivity assessment. The pressure benchmark is relatively protective and may represent a reduced level of nutrient enrichment in previously polluted areas.  Resistance to this pressure is therefore assessed as ‘High’ and resilience as ‘High’ so that the biotope is assessed as ‘Not sensitive’.

Organic enrichment

Benchmark. A deposit of 100 gC/m²/yr. Further detail

Evidence

Organic deposition may result in siltation (see smothering and siltation change pressure) and subsequent re-suspension of organic particles reducing water clarity (see change in suspended solids pressure). The deposition of sewage effluent into coastal environments resulted in the absence of Laminaria digitata and many other species from the coastline of the Firth of Forth (Read et al., 1983). Addition of organic matter may  decrease water clarity and increase particulate matter in the water column the effects of these changes are assessed through the pressure ‘Changes in suspended solids’.

Sensitivity assessment. The algae within the biotope are not considered likely to be directly affected by an increase in organic matter. The fronds of algae may intercept particles and may remove these from the chalk surfaces limiting deposition, although red algal turfs may trap silts and organic matter where turf dwelling fauna may consume organic fractions. Suspension feeders inccluding barnacles and piddocks and Polydora spp. may also utilise organic particles as food. Piddocks and the algal turf are likely to be able to withstand a low level of deposition of organic matter (at the pressure benchmark). Resistance is assessed as 'High' and resilience as 'High' so that the biotope is considered to be 'Not sensitive'.

Physical loss (to land or freshwater habitat)

Benchmark. A permanent loss of existing saline habitat within the site. Further detail

Evidence

All marine habitats and benthic species are considered to have a resistance of ‘None’ to this pressure and to be unable to recover from a permanent loss of habitat (resilience is ‘Very Low’).  Sensitivity within the direct spatial footprint of this pressure is therefore ‘High’.  Although no specific evidence is described confidence in this assessment is ‘High’, due to the incontrovertible nature of this pressure.

Physical change (to another seabed type)

Benchmark. Permanent change from sedimentary or soft rock substrata to hard rock or artificial substrata or vice-versa. Further detail

Evidence

This biotope is characterized by the soft rock substratum which supports populations of burrowing piddocks (JNCC, 2015). A change to a sedimentary, hard rock or artifical substratum would result in the loss of piddocks and other boring fauna such as the poychaete Polydora and the bivalve Hiatella arctica, significantly altering the character of the biotope. Sedimentary and artificial substratum would also provide less suitable habitats for algae and otehr attached epifauna. 

The biotope is considered to have 'No' resistance to this pressure, recovery of the biological assemblage (following habitat restoration) is considered to be 'Very low' as a change at the pressure benchmark is considered to be permanent. Sensitivity is therefore assessed as 'High', based on the lack of recovery of chalk substratum. Although no specific evidence is described confidence in this assessment is ‘High’, based on biotope classification (JNCC, 2015).

Physical change (to another sediment type)

Benchmark. Permanent change in one Folk class (based on UK SeaMap simplified classification). Further detail

Evidence

This biotope is characterized by the soft rock substratum which supports populations of burrowing piddocks. A change to a sedimentary substratum would significantly alter the character of the biotope as Fucus serratus and the red algal turf would be lost due to the lack of firm substratum to attach to. Similarly, sediments are not suitable for piddocks.  The biotope is therefore considered to have no ('None') resistance to this pressure, recovery of the biological assemblage (following habitat restoration) is considered to be 'Very Low' (2-10 years) as a change at the pressure benchmark is consdiered permanent. Although no specific evidence is described, confidence in this assessment is ‘High’, due to the incontrovertible nature of this pressure. 

Habitat structure changes - removal of substratum (extraction)

Benchmark. The extraction of substratum to 30 cm (where substratum includes sediments and soft rock but excludes hard bedrock). Further detail

Evidence

The removal of substratum to 30cm depth will remove the entire biological assemblage in the impact footprint.  Resistance is, therefore, assessed as ‘None’, recovery of the biological assemblage (following habitat restoration) is considered to be 'Medium' (2-10 years) but see caveats in the recovery notes. The biotope is dependent on the presence of chalk or other soft rock, when lost restoration would not be feasible and recovery is therefore categorised as 'Very low'. Sensitivity is, therefore, assessed as 'High', based on the lack of recovery on substratum.

Abrasion / disturbance of the surface of the substratum or seabed

Benchmark. Damage to surface features (e.g. species and physical structures within the habitat). Further detail

Evidence

Within this biotope the algae and epifauna could be damaged and removed by surface abrasion. Removal of the canopy of Laminaria digitata may have indirect negative impacts as the reduction in shading may lead to bleaching of sub-canopy algae (Hawkins & Harkins, 1985). Some species protruding from the surface, e.g. Polydora spp. may also be removed.  Although the piddocks are afforded some protection from surface abrasion by living in their burrows, damage to the chalk may leave individuals, especially those near the surface, vulnerable to damage and death through exposure, damage and compaction.  Micu (2007) for example observed that after storms in the Romanian Black Sea, the round goby, Neogobius melanostomus, removed clay from damaged or exposed burrows to be able to remove and eat piddocks.

The most significant impact may be on the chalk substratum by removing  or damaging surface layers resulting in the chalk being more vulnerable to erosion. Natural erosion processes are, however, likely to be on-going within this habitat type. Where abundant the boring activities of piddocks contribute significantly to bioerosion, which can make the substratum habitat more unstable and can result in increased rates of coastal erosion (Evans 1968a; Trudgill 1983; Trudgill & Crabtree, 1987).  Pinn et al. (2005) estimated that over the lifespan of a piddock (12 years), up to 41% of the shore could be eroded to a depth of 8.5 mm.

Sensitivity assessment. Surface abrasion may remove the algae and epifauna and result in the loss of some piddocks and damge to habitat. Resistance is therefore assessed as ‘Low’ for the algae and ‘Medium’ for piddocks and substratum.  The algal mat and surface infauan are predicted to recover within 2 years, so that resilience is considered to be ‘High’ and sensitivity is ‘Low’. As the substratum  cannot recover, resilience is assessed as ‘Very Low’ and the sensitivity of the overall biotope is considered to be ‘Medium’.

Penetration or disturbance of the substratum subsurface

Benchmark. Damage to sub-surface features (e.g. species and physical structures within the habitat). Further detail

Evidence

Penetration and disturbance below the surface of the substratum will damage and remove the algae and surface fauna and could damage and expose piddocks. Piddocks in damaged burrows or those that are removed from the substratum are unlikely to be able to rebury and will be predated by fish and other mobile species (Micu, 2007). The most significant impact may be the damage and removal of the chalk substratum. Where abundant the boring activities of piddocks can make the substratum habitat more unstable and can exacerbate erosion (Evans 1968a; Trudgill 1983; Trudgill & Crabtree, 1987).  Pinn et al. (2005) estimated that over the lifespan of a piddock (12 years), up to 41% of the shore could be eroded to a depth of 8.5 mm. Substrata that are heavily bored by piddocks may, therefore, be more vulnerable to damage and removal through exposure to this pressure.

Sensitivity assessment. Sub-surface penetration and disturbance will remove and damage the characterizing algae and surface dwelling fauna and result in the loss of piddocks and damage to the habitat. Resistance is therefore assessed as ‘Low’.  The algae and epifauna are predicted to remover relatively rapidly and the piddocks within 2-10 years so that resilience of the biological assemblage is considered to be ‘Medium’ and sensitivity is ‘Medium’. As the substratum cannot recover, resilience is assessed as ‘Very Low’ and sensitivity of the overall biotope is considered to be ‘High’.  The more precautionary assessment based on the substratum has been entered into the risk assessment table.

Changes in suspended solids (water clarity)

Benchmark. A change in one rank on the WFD (Water Framework Directive) scale e.g. from clear to intermediate for one year. Further detail

Evidence

Suspended Particle Matter (SPM) concentration has a linear relationship with sub surface light attenuation (Kd) (Devlin et al., 2008). Light availability and water turbidity are principal factors in determining depth range at which kelp can be found (Birkett et al., 1998b) an increase in suspended solids and decrease in light penetration is, therefore, directly relevant to this biotope. Light penetration influences the maximum depth at which kelp species can grow and it has been reported that laminarians grow at depths at which the light levels are reduced to 1 percent of incident light at the surface. Maximal depth distribution of laminarians therefore varies from 100 m in the Mediterranean to only 6-7 m in the silt laden German Bight. In Atlantic European waters, the depth limit is typically 35 m. In very turbid waters the depth at which kelp is found may be reduced, or in some cases excluded completely (e.g. Severn Estuary), because of the alteration in light attenuation by suspended sediment (Lüning, 1990; Birkett et al. 1998b). The absence of Laminaria digitata in the Firth of Forth was suggested to be caused by the outflow from a sewage treatment plant that increased the turbidity of the water and thus decreased photosynthetic activity, although the effect of turbidity was probably coupled with increased nutrient levels (Read et al., 1983). Blue light is crucial for the gametophytic stages of Laminaria digitata, and several other congenic species (Lüning, 1980).  Dissolved organic materials (yellow substance or gelbstoff) absorbs blue light (Kirk, 1976), therefore changes in riverine input or other land based runoff are likely to influence kelp density and distribution.  In the silt-laden waters around Helgoland, Germany the depth limit for Laminaria digitata growth may be reduced to between 0 m and 1.5 m (Birkett et al. 1998b). In locations where water clarity is severely decreased, Laminaria species experience a significant decrease in growth from the shading of suspended matter and/or phytoplankton (Lyngby & Mortensen 1996, Spilmont et al., 2009).

No direct evidence was found to assess the effects of this pressure on piddock and other boring fauna. Increased suspended particles may enhance food supply (where these are organic in origin) or decrease feeding efficiency (where the particles are inorganic and require greater filtration efforts). Very high levels of silt may clog respiratory and feeding organs of some suspension feeders. Increased levels of particles may increase scour and deposition in the biotope depending on local hydrodynamic conditions. The piddocks are protected from scour within burrows and increased organic particles will provide a food subsidy.  Pholas dactylus occurs in habitats such as soft chalks where turbidity may be high and is therefore unlikely to be affected by an increase in suspended sediments at the pressure benchmark. Piddocks, in common with other suspension feeding bivalves, have efficient mechanisms to remove inorganic particles via pseudofaeces. Experimental work on Pholas dactylus showed that large particles can either be rejected immediately in the pseudofaeces or passed very quickly through the gut (Knight, 1984). Similarly Petricolaria pholadiformis is able to tolerate high-levels of suspended solids through the production of pseudofaeces (Purchon, 1955). Increased suspended sediments may impose sub-lethal  energetic costs on piddocks by reducing feeding efficiency and requiring the production of pseudofaeces with impacts on growth and reproduction. A significant decrease in suspended organic particles may reduce food input to the biotope resulting in reduced growth and fecundity of piddocks. However, local primary productivity may be enhanced where suspended sediments decrease, increasing food supply.  Decreased suspended sediment may increase macroalgal competition enhancing diversity but is considered unlikely to significantly change the character of the biotope.

Sensitivity Assessment. A decrease in inorganic suspended solids is likely to support enhanced growth (and possible habitat expansion) of algae and the biotope is not conisdered  is therefore considered 'Not sensitive' (based on 'High' resistance resilience).  However, an increase in turbidity, is likely to result in a reduction in growth of kelp and potential loss, particularly where this biotope occurs towards the depth limit. Red algae are more shade tolerant and an increase in suspended sediemnt may result in increased dominance by shade and scour resistant red algae such as Ahnfeltia plicata. Resistance to this pressure is assessed as ‘Low’ based on reduction and loss of kelp canopy and resilience to this pressure is defined as ‘High’ (based on Laminaria digitata resilience. Hence, this biotope is regarded as having a sensitivity of ‘Low‘.

Smothering and siltation rate changes (light)

Benchmark. ‘Light’ deposition of up to 5 cm of fine material added to the seabed in a single discrete event. Further detail

Evidence

No direct evidence of the effects of this pressure was found for this biotope although some studies were found for the sensitivity of Saccharina latissima to this pressure. An experiment by Roleda et al. (2008) illustrated potential benefits to low levels of siltation including UV protection for Saccharina latissima for short periods. When burial under a variety of sediment types were extended beyond 7 days, symptoms of bleaching, tissue loss and diminished PSII function were exhibited (Roleda and Dethleff, 2011).  A layer of fine grained sediment (0.1-0.2 cm thick) caused rotting of Saccharina latissima disk samples placed in petri dishes and 25% mortality after 4 weeks of coverage in a laboratory experiment. It is unclear how a whole plant would respond to siltation, however the findings are still worth considering.Saccharina latissima is considered to be more silt tolerant than Laminaria digitata, therefore suggesting that in locations of low wave and current mediated water flow; sedimentation is a threat to this biotope (Lyngby & Mortensen, 1996).

Sedimentation has additional negative effects on the zoospores of brown algae, with spores attaching to the only substratum available. Hence, fine sediment could interfere with recruitment, by preventing and deterring spores attachment to a hard substratum; resulting in their subsequent loss due to waves and currents (Devinny & Volse, 1978; Norton, 1978; Bartsch et al., 2008).  Field observations reveal that kelp are associated with accelerating sediment deposition and additionally prevent sediments being washed away because of their influence on local water current by increasing drag and thus particulate fall out (Airoldi, 2003 references therein). However this sediment is associated with the holdfasts of the kelp and not the fronds. At higher levels of wave exposure, the movement of the kelp fronds sweeps away sediments, reducing accumulation (Kennelly, 1989; Melville & Connell, 2001, cited in Airoldi, 2003).

The burrowing mechanisms of the piddocks Pholas dactylus and Barnea candida and other Pholads, mean that the burrows have a narrow entrance excavated by the juvenile. As the individual grows and excavates deeper the burrow widens resulting in a conical burrow from which the adult cannot emerge. Petricolaria pholadiformis excavates a cylindrical burrow (Ansell, 1970) and hence may be able to relocate in sandy sediments, however although burrowing mechanisms have been studied, however  no evidence was found to suggest this species can re-emerge through sediments and re-bury. Piddocks cannot therefore emerge from layers of deposited silt as other more mobile bivalves can. No examples of direct empirical evidence or experiments on mortality rates were found to assess this presure for piddocks and other boring infauna. Sometimes the substratum in which piddocks reside is covered by a thin layer of loose sandy material, through which the piddocks maintain contact with the surface via their siphons.   It is likely that the piddocks would be able to extend their siphons through loose material, particularly where tidal movements shift the sand around. Pholas dactylus have been found living under layers of sand in Aberystwyth, Wales, (Knight, 1984) and in Eastbourne, with their siphons protruding at the surface (Pinn et al., 2008). Barnea candida has also been found to survive being covered by shallow layers of sand in Merseyside (Wallace & Wallace, 1983). Wallace & Wallace (1983) were unsure as to how long the Barnea candida could survive smothering but noted that, on the coast of the Wirral, the piddocks have survived smothering after periods of rough weather. Where smothering is constant, survival can be more difficult. The redistribution of loose material following storms off Whitstable Street, in the Thames Estuary, is thought to be responsible for the suffocation of many Petricolaria pholadiformis and it is possible that this species may be the most intolerant of the three piddock species associated with this biotope. However, it was not known how deep the layer of 'loose material' was, nor how long it lasted for or what type of material it was made up of.

Indirect indications for the impacts of siltation are provided by studies of Witt et al., (2004) on the impacts of harbour dredge disposal. Petricolaria (syn. Petricola) pholadiformis was absent from the disposal area, and Witt et al., (2004) cite reports by Essink (1996, not seen) that smothering of Petricolaria pholadiformis from siltation could lead to mortality within a few hours.  Hebda (2011) also identified that sedimentation may be one of the key threats to Barnea truncata populations.  At Agigea (Micu, 2007) reported that smothering of clay beds by sand and finer sediments had removed populations of Pholas dactylus. In this area sand banks up to 1m thick frequently shift position driven by storm events and currents (Micu, 2007). Similar smothering was described in the case of Barnea candida populations boring into clay beds (Gomoiu & Muller 1962, cited from Micu, 2007).

Sensitivity assessment. The resistance of the kelp and red algal turf in the biotope is considered ‘High’ as wave action and currents should rapidly remove sediment from the biotope. As piddocks are essentially sedentary and as siphons are relatively short, siltation from more cohesive fine sediments rather than sands, even at low levels for short periods could be lethal.  Resistance to siltation is therefore assessed as ‘Low’ for piddocks and other boring infauna, although effects would be mitigated where water currents and wave exposure rapidly removed the overburden and this will depend on the impact footprint and local hydrodynamic conditions. Resilience is assessed as ‘Medium’ (2-10 years) for piddocks and sensitivity is therefore assessed as ‘Medium’. 

Smothering and siltation rate changes (heavy)

Benchmark. ‘Heavy’ deposition of up to 30 cm of fine material added to the seabed in a single discrete event. Further detail

Evidence

The evidence suggests that Laminaria digitata is sensitive to prolonged smothering (Roleda & Dethleff, 2011) (see ‘light‘ deposition above ). While 5 cm of sediment coverage may be transported from the biotope relatively quickly a deposition of 30 cm is likely to remain in place for a,longer period of time, especially in wave sheltered examples of the biotope. Therefore, heavy siltation' may have a greater effect on the health of the biotope, resulting in smothering of the epifauna and flora, the red algae community and holdfast fauna in particular.  The burrowing mechanisms of the piddocks Pholas dactylus and Barnea candida and other Pholads, mean that the burrows have a narrow entrance excavated by the juvenile. As the individual grows and excavates deeper the burrow widens resulting in a conical burrow from which the adult cannot emerge. Petricolaria pholadiformis excavates a cylindrical burrow (Ansell, 1970) and hence may be able to relocate in sandy sediments, however although burrowing mechanisms have been studied, however  no evidence was found to suggest this species can re-emerge through sediments and re-bury. Piddocks cannot therefore emerge from layers of deposited silt as other more mobile bivalves can.

No examples of direct empirical evidence or experiments on mortality rates in response to siltation have been found for piddocks. Indirect indications for the impacts of siltation are provided by studies of Witt et al., (2004) on the impacts of harbour dredge disposal. Petricolaria (syn. Petricola) pholadiformis was absent from the disposal area, and Witt et al., (2004) cite reports by Essink (1996, not seen) that smothering of Petricolaria pholadiformis from siltation could lead to mortality within a few hours.  Hebda (2011) also identified that sedimentation may be one of the key threats to Barnea truncata populations.  At Agigea (Micu, 2007) reported that smothering of clay beds by sand and finer sediments had removed populations of Pholas dactylus. In this area sand banks up to 1m thick frequently shift position driven by storm events and currents (Micu, 2007). Similar smothering was described in the case of Barnea candida populations boring into clay beds (Gomoiu & Muller 1962, cited from Micu, 2007).

Sensitivity assessment.Siltation at the pressure benchmark is considered to remove most or all of the piddocks and the surface algae and fauna.  Resistance to siltation is therefore assessed as ‘None' although effects could be mitigated where water currents and wave exposure rapidly removed the overburden and this will depend on shore height and local hydrodynamic conditions. Resilience is assessed as ‘Medium’ (2-10 years) for piddocks and sensitivity is therefore assessed as ‘Medium’. 

Litter

Benchmark. The introduction of man-made objects able to cause physical harm (surface, water column, seafloor or strandline). Further detail

Evidence

Not assessed.

Electromagnetic changes

Benchmark. A local electric field of 1 V/m or a local magnetic field of 10 µT. Further detail

Evidence

No evidence.

Underwater noise changes

Benchmark. MSFD indicator levels (SEL or peak SPL) exceeded for 20% of days in a calendar year. Further detail

Evidence

Not relevant.

Introduction of light or shading

Benchmark. A change in incident light via anthropogenic means. Further detail

Evidence

Chapman (1995) noted that too little or too much light are likely to be stressors for macroalgae. It is feasible that localised light sources (e.g. post or harbour side lighting) might increase the length of time available for photosynthesis and increased levels of diffuse irradiation correlate with increased growth in macroalgae (Aguilera et al., 1999).  There is considerable literature on the light compensation point of marine algae (see Lüning, 1990) but it is difficult to correlate such evidence with 'shading', as light saturation and compensation points depend on light availability, light quality, season and turbidity.  Red algae, in general, are shade tolerant, often occurring under a macroalgal canopy that reduces light penetration. In areas of higher light levels, the fronds may be lighter in colour due to bleaching (Colhart & Johansen, 1973). 

The piddock Pholas dactylus can perceive and react to light (Hecht, 1928) however there is no evidence that this pressure would impact the piddocks within the biotope. Other macrofauna are also likely to be able to sense light but changes in light intensity and shading are unlikely to alter the character of the biotope.

Sensitivity assessment. Shading of shallow examples of the biotope (e.g. by the construction of pontoons or jetties) would limit the availability of light, and have similar effects to that of increased turbidity (see above) in the affected area. The dominant kelp is likely to be excluded while shade tolerant red algae may increase in abundance  or be reduced to encrusting corallines and become dominated by faunal turfs, depending on the degree of shading.  The biotope may be lost in the affected area, hence a resistance of 'Low' is suggested,with a resilience of 'High' (following restoration of usual light environment) and sensitivity is therefore considered to be 'Low'. Pholas dactylus can perceive and react to light (Hecht, 1928) however there is no evidence that this pressure would impact the piddocks and other boring animals in the biotope.

Barrier to species movement

Benchmark. A permanent or temporary barrier to species movement over ≥50% of water body width or a 10% change in tidal excursion. Further detail

Evidence

Not relevant.

Death or injury by collision

Benchmark. Injury or mortality from collisions of biota with both static or moving structures due to 0.1% of tidal volume on an average tide, passing through an artificial structure. Further detail

Evidence

 ‘Not relevant’ to seabed habitats.  NB. Collision by grounding vessels is addressed under ‘surface abrasion’.

Visual disturbance

Benchmark. The daily duration of transient visual cues exceeds 10% of the period of site occupancy by the feature. Further detail

Evidence

Pholas dactylus reacts quickly to changes in light intensity, after a couple of seconds, by withdrawing its siphon (Knight, 1984). This reaction is ultimately an adaptation to reduce the risk of predation by, for example, approaching birds (Knight, 1984). However, its visual acuity is probably very limited and it is unlikely to be sensitive to visual disturbance. Birds are highly intolerant of visual presence and are likely to be scared away by increased human activity, therefore reducing the predation pressure on piddocks. Therefore, visual disturbance may be of indirect benefit to piddock populations. Resistance and resilience are, therefore, assessed as ‘High’ and the biotope is considered to be ‘Not sensitive’.

Genetic modification & translocation of indigenous species

Benchmark. Translocation of indigenous species or the introduction of genetically modified or genetically different populations of indigenous species that may result in changes in the genetic structure of local populations, hybridization, or change in community structure. Further detail

Evidence

The species characterizing this biotope are not farmed or translocated and therefore this pressure is 'Not relevant' to this biotope.

Introduction or spread of invasive non-indigenous species

Benchmark. The introduction of one or more invasive non-indigenous species (INIS). Further detail

Evidence

Competition with invasive macroalgae may be a potential threat to this biotope. Potential invasives include Undaria pinnatifida, Sargassum muticum and Codium fragile. Sargassum muticum has been shown to competitively replace Laminaria spp. in Denmark (Staehr et al., 2000). In Nova Scotia, Codium fragile competes successfully with native kelps for space including Laminaria digitata, exploiting gaps within the kelp beds. Once established the algal mat created by Codium fragile prevents re-colonization by other macro-algae (Scheibling et al., 2006).

Sargassum muticum is a circumglobal invasive species (Engelen et al., 2015). It is recorded (2015) from Norway to Morocco and into the Mediterranean in the eastern Atlantic, from Alaska to Baja California in the eastern Pacific, and from southern Russia to southern China in the western Pacific (Engelen et al., 2015). It colonizes a variety of habitats and can tolerate -1°C to 30°C and survive salinities below 10 ppt.  Although fertilization does not occur below 15 ppt and growth of germlings is limited below 10°C, it can complete its life cycle as long as temperatures are over 8°C for at least four months of the year (Engelen et al., 2015).  However, its distribution is limited by the availability of hard substratum (e.g., stones >10 cm) and light (Staeher et al., 2000; Strong & Dring 2011; Engelen et al., 2015). It is most abundant between 1 and 3 m below mean water, but it has been recorded at 18 m or 30 m in the clear waters of California. However, it is a poor competitor under low light and only develops dense canopies in shallow areas (Engelen et al., 2015).

Sargassum muticum was shown to replace and out-compete leathery, canopy-forming macroalgae such as Saccharina latissima, Halidrys siliquosa, and Fucus spp. and, to a lesser degree, understorey species such as Codium fragile, Chondrus crispus and Dictyota dichotoma in Limfjorden, Denmark between 1984 and 1997 (Staehr et al., 2000; Engelen et al., 2015; de Bettignies et al., 2021). The invasion in Limfjorden had stabilized by 2005 although many of the native macroalgal species continued to decline (Engelen et al., 2015). In Limfjorden, the distribution of Sargassum muticum was limited to areas with hard substratum, in particular stones >10 cm in diameter, while smaller stones, gravel and sand were unsuitable. It was most abundant between 1 and 4 m in depth but had low cover at 0 to 0.5 m or 4 to 6 m, in the turbid waters of the Limfjorden. Limfjorden is wave sheltered although wave exposure has been reported to restrict the growth and survival of Sargassum muticum (Staehr et al., 2000). Viejo et al. (1995) reported that Sargassum muticum transplanted to wave exposed shores in Spain experienced >80% breakages within a month and that the growth of undamaged plants was significantly lower than that of plants on sheltered shores.  Similarly, Andrew & Viejo (1998) noted that Sargassum muticum was restricted to intertidal rockpools in wave exposed sites in the Bay of Biscay.

Strong & Dring (2011) used canopy removal experiments to investigate inter- and intra-species competition between Sargassum muticum and Saccharina latissima in the Dorn, Strangford Lough, N. Ireland. The Dorn consists of tidal pools, very sheltered from wave action but with moderately strong tidal streams (1-2 knots). Sargassum muticum grew better in mixed stands with Saccharina latissima than in the highest density monospecific stands examined. However, the growth of Saccharina was not affected by the proportion of Sargassum in mixed stands. They concluded that Saccharina was not impacted significantly by the alien species while Sargassum benefited from growth in mixed stands. Experimental manipulation of subtidal algal canopies in San Juan Islands, Washington State, USA, showed that Sargassum muticum reduced the abundance of native macroalgae, including the kelp Laminaria bongardiana due to shading. However, the experimental removal of Sargassum resulted in the recovery of native species within about 1 year (Britton-Simmons, 2004; Engelen et al., 2015). The negative effects of Sargassum muticum on native macroalgae are mainly due to competition for light, rather than changes in nutrient availability, sedimentation, or water flow (Britton-Simmons, 2004; Engelen et al., 2015). Cosson (1999) reported a significant decline in Laminaria digitata at two sites between 1983 and 1997 on the coast of Normandy, France, due to an increase in Sargassum muticum abundance in the same areas. For example, on the Grandcamp rocks, Laminaria digitata has almost disappeared while Sargassum muticum had covered 80% of the lower intertidal and subtidal zone in summer.

Undaria pinnatifida (Wakame or Asian kelp) is a large brown seaweed and an Invasive Non-Indigenous Species (INIS) that could out-compete native UK kelp species (see Farrell & Fletcher, 2006; Thompson & Schiel, 2012; Brodie et al., 2014; Hieser et al., 2014; Arnold et al., 2016; Epstein & Smale, 2017; Epstein & Smale, 2018; Kraan, 2017; Epstein et al., 2019a,b; Tidbury, 2020). Undaria pinnatifida originates from Japan but is established currently on the coastlines of New Zealand, Australia, Northern France, Spain, Italy, the UK, Portugal, Belgium, Holland, Argentina, Mexico, and the USA (De Leij et al., 2017). Undaria pinnatifida was first recorded in the UK in the Hamble Estuary in 1994 (Macleod et al., 2016). It has since proliferated along UK coastlines. One year after its discovery at the Queen Anne Battery marina, Plymouth, it became a major fouling plant on pontoons (Minchin & Nunn, 2014). Although initially restricted to artificial habitats, such as marinas and ports, it is now widespread in natural habitats in several areas, including Plymouth Sound.

Undaria pinnatifida seems to settle better on artificial substrata (e.g., floats, marinas, or piers) than on natural rocky shores among local kelps (Vaz-Pinto et al., 2014). It is found predominantly in low intertidal to shallow subtidal habitats (Epstein et al., 2019b) and is significantly more abundant on artificial substrata compared to natural rocky substrata (Heiser et al., 2014; Epstein & Smale, 2018).  James (2017) suggested that Undaria pinnatifida could out-compete native species on artificial substrata (such as marinas and wharf structures). In Plymouth, UK, De Leij et al. (2017) found that natural habitats with dense native macroalgal canopies, such as Laminaria hyperborea, Laminaria ochroleuca, Laminaria digitata and Saccharina latissima had more resistance to Undaria pinnatifida invasion than disturbed or sparse canopies, due to limited space and light availability for Undaria pinnatifida recruits. However, the dense canopies did not always prevent invasion of Undaria pinnatifida as sporophytes were still recorded within dense Laminaria canopies, so that canopy disturbance was not always required (De Leij et al., 2017; Epstein & Smale, 2018).

Undaria pinnatifida species behaves as a winter annual and recruitment occurs in winter followed by rapid growth through spring, maturity and then senescence through summer, with only the microscopic life stages persisting through autumn. It exhibits multiple dispersal strategies, such as short-range spore dispersal, and long-range dispersal as whole drift plants or fragments. Undaria pinnatifida has spread rapidly across the UK and Europe, resulting in community-wide responses and impacts (Vaz-Pinto et al., 2014; Epstein & Smale, 2017). Its impacts are complex and context-specific, depending on space, time, and taxa present in the introduced location (Epstein & Smale, 2017; Teagle et al., 2017; Tidbury, 2020). Undaria pinnatifida has a wide physiological niche meaning it can occur in both coastal and estuarine environments showing tolerance for varying salinities, turbidity, and siltation (Heiser et al., 2014; Epstein & Smale, 2018). Undaria pinnatifida prefers sheltered sites with low wave exposure and weak tidal streams (Heiser et al., 2014; Epstein & Smale, 2018). In natural habitats, Undaria pinnatifida was not recorded if the wave fetch was greater than 642 km but increased in abundance and cover in very sheltered sites (Epstein & Smale, 2018).

In St Malo, France, there was evidence that Undaria pinnatifida could co-exist with Laminaria digitata under certain conditions (Castric-Fey et al., 1993). Epstein et al. (2019b) observed that, in Plymouth Sound, UK, Undaria pinnatifida co-existed with seven species of canopy-forming brown macroalgae within its depth range (+1 to –4 m), including Laminaria digitata; which suggested that they could occupy an overlapping niche. Epstein & Smale (2018) also observed that Undaria pinnatifida was relatively common (abundance of >70 individuals per 25 m transect) at three sites in Devon, UK (Jennycliff, Bovisand and Beacon Cove) where Laminaria spp. were abundant (40-79%) or superabundant (>80%), which suggested that Undaria pinnatifida could co-exist within refugia amongst areas with dense Laminaria spp..

In many cases, Undaria pinnatifida seems to have minimal impacts on native communities (e.g., Forrest & Taylor, 2002; Valentine & Johnson, 2003; South et al., 2016; Epstein & Smale, 2017; Epstein & Smale 2018). Laminaria digitata forms dense monospecific canopies and its thick, extensive laminae are likely to restrict light penetration to the underlying substratum, including Undaria pinnatifida (De Leij et al., 2017). Disturbance to the native kelp canopy can facilitate the spread of INIS by increasing the availability of resources such as light and space. Experimental full removal of the existing kelp canopy in Plymouth Sound allowed the mean cover of Undaria pinnatifida to increase from ca 10% to ca 50% within three months (De Leij et al., 2017). Their experiment showed that the density of Laminaria digitata was important to Undaria pinnatifida invasion (De Leij et al., 2017).

Similarly, a primary succession experiment by Epstein et al. (2019b) in Plymouth Sound (UK) showed that clearance of Laminaria digitata in 2016 resulted in an increase in Undaria pinnatifida abundance. However, this was quickly followed by the recovery of Laminaria digitata in 2017 and the concurrent decline in Undaria pinnatifida, which suggested that Laminaria digitata had a higher fitness (Epstein et al., 2019b). Within the same study, Epstein et al. (2019b) observed that Undaria pinnatifida exhibited a significant negative relationship with Laminaria digitata on intertidal rocky reef substrata, which suggested that Laminaria digitata negatively affected Undaria pinnatifida abundance. It was also suggested that Undaria pinnatifida has a lower resistance to desiccation than Laminaria digitata. As a result, Epstein & Smale (2019b) concluded that due to its lower fitness, Undaria found within natural habitats in the northeast Atlantic has low ecological and community level impacts and was competitively inferior to Laminaria spp.. However, Heiser et al. (2014) found that in Plymouth, UK, Laminaria digitata was significantly less abundant at sites with the presence of Undaria pinnatifida, with only ca 1.5 Laminaria digitata individuals per m² with Undaria pinnatifida, compared to ca 7 individuals per m² at sites without Undaria pinnatifida. Undaria pinnatifida was successfully eradicated on a sunken ship in Chatham Islands, New Zealand, by applying a heat treatment of 70°C (Wotton et al., 2004). However, numerous other eradication attempts have failed and as noted by Fletcher & Farrell (1998), once established Undaria pinnatifida resists most attempts at long-term removal.

The American piddock, Petricolaria pholadiformis is a non-native, boring piddock that was unintentionally introduced from America with the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica, not later than 1890 (Naylor, 1957). Rosenthal (1980) suggested that from the British Isles, the species has colonized several northern European countries by means of its pelagic larva and may also spread via driftwood, although it usually bores into clay, peat or soft rock shores. In Belgium and The Netherlands Petricolaria pholadiformis almost completely displaced the native piddock, Barnea candida (ICES, 1972). However, this has not been observed elsewhere, and later studies have found that Barnea candida is now more common than Petricolaria pholadiformis in Belgium (Wouters, 1993) and there is no documentary evidence to suggest that Barnea candida has been displaced in the British Isles (J. Light & I. Kileen pers. comm. to Eno et al., 1997). Petricolaria pholadiformis is considered unlikely to displace Pholas dactylus which is more likely to occur subtidally. Should Petricolaria pholadiformis be present in this biotope it is not considered to alter the character or ecological function of the biotope. Although not currently established in UK waters, the whelk Rapana venosa, may spread to habitats. This species has been observed predating on Pholas dactylus in the Romanian Black Sea by Micu (2007).

Sensitivity Assessment. The above evidence suggests that Undaria pinnatifida can co-exist with native kelp species within its depth range (-1 to 4 m) e.g., Laminaria digitata as shown in Plymouth Sound, UK.  The dense kelp canopy may restrict or slow the proliferation of Undaria pinnatifida. But Laminaria digitata has been shown to out-compete Undaria pinnatifida. For example, removal of the Laminaria digitata canopy resulted in the increase of Undaria pinnatifida abundance but recovery of Laminaria digitata in the following year resulted in a concurrent decline in Undaria pinnatifida.

In addition, this Laminaria digitata dominated biotope (IR.MIR.KR.Ldig.Pid) is found in the sublittoral fringe with moderate wave exposure and is structured by moderately strong and weak tidal streams. The evidence above suggests that Undaria prefers sheltered conditions, with low tidal flow, and is less tolerant of desiccation than Laminaria digitata. It is unlikely to out-compete or replace Laminaria digitata under the physical conditions that characterize this biotope. Therefore, resistance is assessed as ‘Medium’ to represent the possibility of short-term colonization by Undaria after a disturbance. Resilience is ‘High’ due to the high fitness nature of Laminaria digitata (Epstein et al., 2019b), so sensitivity is assessed as ‘Low’.  

However, while Sargassum muticum prefers wave sheltered, shallow sites in the sublittoral fringe, it has been reported to invade and out-compete Laminaria digitata beds in Normandy, France (Cosson, 1999; de Bettignies et al., 2021).  Therefore, resistance is assessed as ‘Low’ to represent the possibility of colonization by Sargassum.  While Laminaria digitata may out-compete Undaria, the recovery after invasion by Sargassum, although rapid, would require direct intervention (removal). Hence, resilience is probably ‘Very low’ so sensitivity is assessed as ‘High’. Overall, confidence is assessed as ‘Low’ due to evidence of variation and the site-specific nature of competition between native kelps and both Undaria pinnatifida and Sargassum muticum and the limited direct evidence of the effect of Sargassum on Laminaria digitata. 

Introduction of microbial pathogens

Benchmark. The introduction of relevant microbial pathogens or metazoan disease vectors to an area where they are currently not present (e.g. Martelia refringens and Bonamia, Avian influenza virus, viral Haemorrhagic Septicaemia virus). Further detail

Evidence

No evidence was found for micobial infection and mortality in piddock populations.

Symptoms of disease are regularly seen on Laminaria species, however little evidence in the literature is apparent. Infection of Laminaria japonica sporophytes by Pseudoalteromonas, Vibrio and Halomonas results in the characteristic symptoms of hole-rotten disease (Wang et al., 2008). Additionally red spot disease may be caused by bacteria of the genus Alteromonas (Sawabe et al., 1998). Hyperplasia or gall growths are often seen as dark spots on Laminaria digitata and have been associated with endophytic brown filamentous algae. It can be inferred from these observations that microbial pathogens may impact growth rates of individuals.  There is no evidence in the literature that infection by microbial pathogens results in mass death of Laminaria populations and the kelp themselves are known to regulate bacterial infections through iodine metabolism (Cosse et al., 2009).

Sensitivity Assessment. Due to the evidence of consistent low levels of disease and disease resistance in Laminaria populations, resistance to this pressure is regarded as ‘High’ and resilience is therefore also ‘High’. Hence ‘Not sensitive’ is recorded

Removal of target species

Benchmark. Removal of species targeted by fishery, shellfishery or harvesting at a commercial or recreational scale. Further detail

Evidence

Traditionally Laminaria digitata was added to agricultural lands as fertilizers; now Laminaria species are used in a range of different products, with its alginates used in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical and agri-food industries (Kervarec et al., 1999; McHugh, 2003). In France, Laminaria digitata is harvested with a ‘Scoubidou’ (a curved iron hook which is mechanically operated). This device is considered to be selective; only harvesting individuals older than 2 years (Arzel, 2002). France reportedly harvests 75,000t kelp, mainly consisting of Laminaria digitata annually (FAO, 2007). In France, Laminaria digitata is harvested with a ‘Scoubidou’, a curved iron hook which is mechanically operated. This device is considered to be selective; only harvesting individuals older than 2 years (Arzel, 2002). France reportedly harvests 75,000t kelp, mainly consisting of Laminaria digitata annually (FAO, 2007). Davoult et al. (2011) suggested that the maintenance of a sustainable crop of Laminaria digitata was possible if the industry continues employing small vessels evenly dispersed along the coastline. This would protect against habitat fragmentation and buffer over exploitation (Davoult et al., 2011). A fallow period of 18-24 months has been suggested for Laminaria digitata in France, where competition between the juvenile sporophytes of Laminaria digitata and Saccorhiza polyschides was indicated as a threat to the continued harvesting effort of Laminaria digitata (Engelen et al., 2011). If Laminaria digitata, the key characterizing and structuring species of this biotope is removed then the biotope is considered lost due to the significant alteration to the biotope classification and character of the habitat is likely.

Canopy removal of Laminaria digitata has been shown to reduce shading, resulting in the bleaching of sub canopy algae (Hawkins & Harkin, 1985). Harvesting may also result in habitat fragmentation, a major threat to this biotope’s ecosystem functioning (Valero et al., 2011).  In the UK harvesting of Laminaria digitata is currently restricted to manual removal and farming on small scales. Red algae that occur in this biotope may also be harvested. Palmaria palmata (known as dulse) is harvested from the wild both commercially and recreationally. Garbary et al., (2012) studied harvested and non-harvested shores in Nova Scotia, Canada containing stands of Palmaria palmata. They also conducted experimental removal of Palmaria palmata and assessed simulated removal of Palmaria palmata by an experienced commercial harvester. Simulated commercial harvesting reduced cover of Palmaria palmata from 70% to 40%, although experimental removal on shores not usually harvested reduced cover to 20% (Garbary et al., 2012).

Piddocks may be removed as bait and across Europe they have traditionally been harvested for food, however high levels of habitat damage are associated with the removal of boring molluscs (Fanelli et al., 1994) and this practice has largely been banned. The most sensitive component of this biotope to targeted harvesting is the chalk substratum which may be damaged and removed if piddocks were excavated from their burrows, this effect is considered through the physical damage pressures, abrasion and penetration and sub-surface damage.

Sensitivity assessment. Removal of the Laminaria digitata canopy, piddocks and red algae will have a negative impact on the primary and secondary productivity of the area and alter the character of the biotope. As these species are attached and easy to select and remove, resistance is assessed as ‘Low’. If some Laminaria digitata and the bases of red algae remain recovery will be fairly rapid. Resilience is assessed as ‘Medium’ (based on recovery of piddocks if these were targeted). The biotope is therefore considered to have ‘Medium’ sensitivity to this pressure.

Removal of non-target species

Benchmark. Removal of features or incidental non-targeted catch (by-catch) through targeted fishery, shellfishery or harvesting at a commercial or recreational scale. Further detail

Evidence

Direct, physical impacts from harvesting are assessed through the abrasion and penetration of the seabed pressures. The sensitivity assessment for this pressure considers any biological/ecological effects resulting from the removal of non-target species on this biotope.  The loss of characterizing and associated species due to incidental removal as by-catch would alter the character of the habitat from the biotope description. The ecological services such as primary production and habitat structure would also be lost. Removal of Laminaria digitata and the red algal turf canopy could result in desiccation leading to bleaching and mortality of corallines, depending on the temperatures experienced and degree of insolation.

Sensitivity assessment.  Removal of a large percentage of the characterizing species, resulting in bare rock would alter the character of the biotope, species richness and ecosystem function. Resistance is therefore assessed as ‘Low’ and resilience as ‘Medium’, (based on the loss of holdfasts and piddocks, but see resilience section for caveats) so that sensitivity is assessed as 'Medium'. If a high proportion of holdfasts remained, recovery would be assessed as ‘High’ and sensitivity would be assessed as ‘Low’.