The Marine Life Information Network

Temperature increase (local)

Benchmark. A 5°C increase in temperature for one month, or 2°C for one year. Further detail

Evidence

Eunicella verrucosa has been recorded in the western Mediterranean and off north-west Africa (Wells, 1983), and increase in temperature is not likely to negatively affect the species. However, during the last decades, mass mortality events related to high seawater temperature anomalies have been reported within the western Mediterranean basin. A mass mortality event in 1999 affected many gorgonians, although Eunicella verrucosa near Gallinaria Island was ‘little affected’ (Cerrano et al. 2000).  ‘Occasional’ mortality was observed in the shallowest populations along the Provence coast (at 37-38 m) during a high temperature event in 1999 where sea temperature was 23-24 °C throughout the water column to 40 m depth (Pérez et al. 2000). In 2003, the pink sea fan populations were affected in the Gulf of Genoa but not along the Provence coast (Garrabou et al. 2009). Although total mortality was not explicitly reported for this species, reduction in population size could be suspected, due to delayed mortality of colonies affected by high levels of injury, as observed in some other Mediterranean gorgonians (e.g. Linares et al., 2005; Coma et al., 2006).

Sensitivity assessment. Records of Eunicella verrucosa are concentrated in the south-west of the UK, with distribution as far south as North Africa and the Mediterranean.  In UK waters, an increase in temperature at the benchmark level is unlikely to impact the species.  Resistance is, therefore, assessed as ‘High’, resilience as ‘High’ and the species recorded as ‘Not sensitive’ at the benchmark level.

Temperature decrease (local)

Benchmark. A 5°C decrease in temperature for one month, or 2°C for one year. Further detail

Evidence

Eunicella verrucosa is a southern species, and its distribution is generally limited to the south-west of the British Isles (Hayward & Ryland, 1990; NBN, 2015).  A decrease in temperature is likely to result in mortality. However, a live specimen collected from shallow depths off North Devon in 1973 exhibited growth rings that demonstrated that the colony had survived the 1962/63 cold winter (Hiscock, pers comm.). Also, large colonies were collected from Lundy in the late 1960's suggesting no significant loss in 1962/63 (Hiscock, pers. comm.). Assuming that temperature decrease reduces recruitment, the population size might decline for a year but recovery would occur following successful recruitment.

Sensitivity assessment. Eunicella verrucosa, already close to its northern distribution limit, would likely suffer mortality in the event of a decrease in temperature, however, it appears to have survived the 1962/3 winter and may have some resistance to temporary changed. Resistance is, therefore, assessed as ‘Medium’, resilience as ‘Medium’ and sensitivity as ‘Medium’.

Salinity increase (local)

Benchmark. A increase in one MNCR salinity category above the usual range of the biotope or habitat. Further detail

Evidence

Eunicella verrucosa occurs in the circalittoral and an increase at the benchmark would result in a change from full to hypersaline conditions.  No records of Eunicella verrucosa in hypersaline conditions was found. Chesher (1975) monitored the species surrounding a desalination outfall with brine effluent at 52‰ salinity, together with variable concentrations of copper and nickel.  A group of ‘gorgonians’ were noted to survive brief exposure to 4-5% effluent, however, long-term survival decreased in relation to proximity to the outfall. ‘No evidence’ on the effects of hypersaline conditions on Eunicella verrucosa was found.

Salinity decrease (local)

Benchmark. A decrease in one MNCR salinity category above the usual range of the biotope or habitat. Further detail

Evidence

Eunicella varricosa typically occurs in the circalittoral and has only been recorded in 'Full salinity' biotopes (Connor et al., 2004).  No evidence for Eunicella verrucosa in low salinity conditions was found.  

Sensitivity assessment.  Whilst there is no specific evidence for Eunicella verrucosa in low salinity conditions, it is probable that this species, which is typically found in circalittoral open water, would be affected adversely by a decrease in salinity at the benchmark level. Resistance is assessed as ‘Low’ (with low confidence), resilience as ‘Medium’ and sensitivity as ‘Medium’. 

Water flow (tidal current) changes (local)

Benchmark. A change in peak mean spring bed flow velocity of between 0.1 m/s to 0.2 m/s for more than one year. Further detail

Evidence

Sea fans are found in strong tidal streams but most likely retract their polyps when current velocity gets too high for the polyps to retain food. Tidal streams exert a steady pull on the colonies and are, therefore, likely to detach only very weakly attached colonies. Colonies rely on water flow rates to bring food and to remove silt.  Bunker (1986) reported that Eunicella verrucosa was present in areas subject to at least moderate tidal stream, but was most abundant in strong tidal streams. There is a tendency for Eunicella verrucosa to align across the direction of the prevailing current (Bunker, 1986). A substantial decrease in water flow will probably result in impaired growth due to a reduction in food availability, and an increased risk of siltation.

Sensitivity assessment.  Whilst a significant decrease could result in less favourable conditions for Eunicella verrucosa, a change at the benchmark level (0.1-0.2 m/s) is unlikely to adversely affect the species, which has been recorded in a range of water flow conditions.  Resistance is, therefore,  assessed as ‘High’, resilience as ‘High’ and the species is recorded as ‘Not Sensitive’ at the benchmark level.

Emergence regime changes

Benchmark.  1) A change in the time covered or not covered by the sea for a period of ≥1 year or 2) an increase in relative sea level or decrease in high water level for ≥1 year. Further detail

Evidence

Changes in emergence are Not Relevant to this species, which is restricted to fully subtidal conditions. The pressure benchmark is relevant only to species found in the littoral and shallow sublittoral fringe.

Wave exposure changes (local)

Benchmark. A change in near shore significant wave height of >3% but <5% for more than one year. Further detail

Evidence

Eunicella verrucosa occurs in biotopes that are moderately to extremely wave exposed (Connor et al., 2004).  Bunker (1986) reported that Eunicella verrucosa was most abundant in moderately exposed locations. However, dead sea fans have been recorded washed up along Chesil Beach (UK) following winter storms (Hatcher & Trewhella, 2006, cited in Wood, 2015b).

Sensitivity assessment.  A significant decrease in wave exposure, e.g. due to artificial barriers, may be detrimental as Eunicella verrucosa is dependent on water flow for nutrition.  Whilst storms may cause mortality, a 3-5% change in significant wave height is unlikely to result in impact. Therefore, resistance is assessed as ‘High’, resilience as ‘High’ and the species is recorded as ‘Not Sensitive’ at the benchmark level. 

Transition elements & organo-metal contamination

Benchmark. Exposure of marine species or habitat to one or more relevant contaminants via uncontrolled releases or incidental spills. Further detail

Evidence

This pressure is Not assessed but evidence is presented where available. No evidence for Eunicella verrucosa was found. However, Chan et al. (2012) studied the response of the gorgonian Subergorgia suberosa to heavy metal-contaminated seawater from a former coastal mining site in Taiwan.  Cu, Zn, and Cd each showed characteristic bioaccumulation. Metallic Zn accumulated but rapidly dissipated. In contrast, Cu easily accumulated but was slow to dissipate, and Cd was only slowly absorbed and dissipated. Associated polyp necrosis, mucus secretion, tissue expansion, and increased mortality were reported in Subergorgia suberosa exposed to water polluted with heavy metals.

Hydrocarbon & PAH contamination

Benchmark. Exposure of marine species or habitat to one or more relevant contaminants via uncontrolled releases or incidental spills. Further detail

Evidence

This pressure is Not assessed but evidence is presented where available.

Oil pollution is mainly a surface phenomenon its impact upon Eunicella verrucosa, which occurs in the circalittoral, may be limited. However, as in the case of the Prestige oil spill off the coast of France, high swell and winds can cause oil pollutants to mix with the seawater and potentially negatively affect sublittoral habitats (Castège et al., 2014).

Filter feeders are highly sensitive to oil pollution, particularly those inhabiting the tidal zones and bottom-dwelling organisms in areas where oil components are deposited by sedimentation (Zahn et al., 1981).  No evidence for Eunicella verrucosa was found, although White et al. (2012) reported on deep-water gorgonian communities, including Swiftia pallida six months after the Deep Water Horizon oil spill.  Stress in the gorgonians was observed including excessive mucous production, retracted polyps and smothering by brown flocculent material (floc).

Synthetic compound contamination

Benchmark. Exposure of marine species or habitat to one or more relevant contaminants via uncontrolled releases or incidental spills. Further detail

Evidence

This pressure is Not assessed.

Radionuclide contamination

Benchmark. An increase in 10µGy/h above background levels. Further detail

Evidence

No evidence was found.

Introduction of other substances

Benchmark. Exposure of marine species or habitat to one or more relevant contaminants via uncontrolled releases or incidental spills. Further detail

Evidence

This pressure is Not assessed.

De-oxygenation

Benchmark. Exposure to dissolved oxygen concentration of less than or equal to 2 mg/l for one week (a change from WFD poor status to bad status). Further detail

Evidence

In general, respiration in most marine invertebrates does not appear to be significantly affected until extremely low concentrations are reached. For many benthic invertebrates this concentration is about 2 ml/l (ca 2.66 mg/l) (Herreid, 1980; Rosenberg et al., 1991; Diaz & Rosenberg, 1995). Cole et al. (1999) suggest possible adverse effects on marine species below 4 mg/l and probable adverse effects below 2 mg/l. No evidence was found concerning the effects of hypoxia for Eunicella verrucosa. However, as a species that lives in fully oxygenated waters in conditions of flowing waters, it is expected that it would be intolerant of decreased oxygen levels. Therefore, resistance is assessed as ‘Low’ (albeit with 'Low' confidence), resilience as ‘Medium’ and sensitivity assessed as ‘Medium’.

Nutrient enrichment

Benchmark. Compliance with WFD criteria for good status. Further detail

Evidence

Whilst Eunicella verrucosa could be at risk of competition from algae in shallow waters due to nutrient enrichment, the species is typically found in the circalittoral.  Hiscock (2003) noted significant mortality of Eunicella verrucosa in Lundy, with parallels to a 1999 event in the north-west Mediterranean (Perez et al., 2000) and an event described off Plymouth in 1924 (Marine Biological Association, 1957).  Hiscock (2003) suggested that a warming event in combination with nutrient enrichment could trigger disease, resulting in mortality of the sea fans.

However, Eunicella verrucosa is considered to be 'Not sensitive' at the pressure benchmark that assumes compliance with good status as defined by the WFD.

Organic enrichment

Benchmark. A deposit of 100 gC/m²/yr. Further detail

Evidence

Organic enrichment leads to organisms no longer being limited by the availability of organic carbon.  The consequent changes in ecosystem function can lead to the progression of eutrophic symptoms (Bricker et al., 2008), changes in species diversity and evenness (Johnston & Roberts, 2009) and decreases in dissolved oxygen and uncharacteristic microalgal blooms (Bricker et al., 1999, 2008).  Indirect adverse effects associated with organic enrichment include increased turbidity, increased suspended sediment and the increased risk of deoxygenation.  

Whilst Eunicella verrucosa could be at risk of competition from algae in shallow waters, the species is typically found in the circalittoral and feeds on both suspended organic matter and plankton (Cocito et al., 2013). Hiscock (2003) noted significant mortality of Eunicella verrucosa in Lundy, with parallels to a 1999 event in the north-west Mediterranean (Perez et al., 2000) and an event described off Plymouth in 1924 (Marine Biological Association, 1957).  Hiscock (2003) suggested that a warming event in combination with nutrient enrichment could trigger disease, resulting in mortality of the sea fans.

Sensitivity assessment.  Little empirical evidence was found to support an assessment of this species at this benchmark.  The lack of direct evidence for Eunicella verrucosa has resulted in this pressure being assessed as ‘No evidence’.

Physical loss (to land or freshwater habitat)

Benchmark. A permanent loss of existing saline habitat within the site. Further detail

Evidence

All marine habitats and benthic species are considered to have ‘No resistance’ to this pressure and to be unable to recover from a permanent loss of habitat.  Sensitivity within the direct spatial footprint of this pressure is, therefore ‘High’.  Although no specific evidence is described confidence in the resistance assessment is ‘High’, due to the incontrovertible nature of this pressure.

Physical change (to another seabed type)

Benchmark. Permanent change from sedimentary or soft rock substrata to hard rock or artificial substrata or vice-versa. Further detail

Evidence

Seafans may colonize artificial hard substratum such as wrecks. A change to an artificial hard substratum does not, therefore, automatically result in loss of suitable habitat for Eunicella verrucosa.  Artificial substratum may differ in character from natural habitats and may be associated with other pressures such as the presence of oil leaking from fuel tanks or the discharge of other chemicals from cargo or the presence of antifoulant. However, a change to sedimentary substrata would result in the loss of suitable substratum for Eunicella verrucosa. Based on the loss of suitable habitat for the species, resistance to this pressure is assessed as ‘None’. Resilience is assessed as ‘Very low’ as the pressure benchmark refers to a permanent change. Sensitivity is, therefore, assessed as ‘High’.

Physical change (to another sediment type)

Benchmark. Permanent change in one Folk class (based on UK SeaMap simplified classification). Further detail

Evidence

'Not Relevant' to species that occur on rock or hard substrata.

Habitat structure changes - removal of substratum (extraction)

Benchmark. The extraction of substratum to 30 cm (where substratum includes sediments and soft rock but excludes hard bedrock). Further detail

Evidence

Eunicella verrucosa is epifaunal, occurs on rock, and would be sensitive to the removal of the habitat. However, extraction of rock substratum is considered unlikely and this pressure is considered to be ‘Not relevant’.

Abrasion / disturbance of the surface of the substratum or seabed

Benchmark. Damage to surface features (e.g. species and physical structures within the habitat). Further detail

Evidence

Physical disturbance by fishing gear has been shown to adversely affect emergent epifauna (Jennings & Kaiser, 1998). Heavy mobile gears could also result in movement of boulders (Bullimore, 1985; Jennings & Kaiser, 1998) and sensitivity of Eunicella verrucosa to abrasion events has been assessed as 'High' in previous reviews (MacDonald, 1996; Hall et al., 2008; Tillin et al., 2010).

Eno et al. (2001) conducted experimental potting on areas containing fragile epifaunal species in Lyme Bay, south-west England. Divers observed that pink sea fan ‘flexed and bent before returning to an upright position under the weight of pots’. Although relatively resistant to a single event it was not clear whether repeated exposure could cause further damage or whether injuries had been inflicted that could lead to deterioration (Eno et al., 2001). Observation of pots suggested that they were dragged along the bottom when the wind and tidal streams were strong, however, little damage to epifauna was observed.  Eunicella verrucosa were patchily distributed in areas subject to potting damage, but the study could not determine whether this was due to damage from potting (Eno et al., 2001). A further four year study on potting in the Lundy Marine Protected Area detected no significant differences in Eunicella verrucosa between areas subject to commercial potting and those where this activity was excluded. Tinsley (2006) observed a flattened sea fan that had continued growing, with new growth being aligned perpendicular to the current, so even colonies of Eunicella verrucosa that are damaged can survive. Healthy Eunicella verrucosa were able to recover from minor damage and scratches to the coenenchyme (Tinsley, 2006), and the coenenchyme covering the axial skeleton re-grew over scrapes on one side of the skeleton in about one week (Hiscock, pers. comm.). Hinz et al. (2011) reported that Eunicella verrucosa did not show a significant negative response (abundance or average body size) to scallop dredging intensity.

Sensitivity assessment.  Eunicella verrucosa is sessile epifauna and is likely to be severely damaged by heavy gears, such as scallop dredging (MacDonald et al., 1996).  However, some studies suggest that the species may be more resistant, particularly to low intensity lighter abrasion pressures, such as pots and associated anchor damage (Eno et al. 2001).  Taking all the evidence into account, a resistance of ‘Low’ is recorded, albeit with a low confidence value owing to the lack of consensus in the literature. Resilience is assessed as ‘Medium’ and sensitivity assessed as ‘Medium’.

Penetration or disturbance of the substratum subsurface

Benchmark. Damage to sub-surface features (e.g. species and physical structures within the habitat). Further detail

Evidence

Eunicella verrucosa is epifaunal and occurs on rock, which is resistant to subsurface penetration.  This pressure is ‘Not Relevant’ to species that occur on rock. However, the effects of 'surface abrasion' are discussed above.

Changes in suspended solids (water clarity)

Benchmark. A change in one rank on the WFD (Water Framework Directive) scale e.g. from clear to intermediate for one year. Further detail

Evidence

While siltation may inhibit feeding, colonies of the sea fan Eunicella verrucosa produce mucus to clear themselves of silt (Hiscock, pers. comm.) and it is probably tolerant of increases in suspended sediment (Hiscock et al., 2004).  Bunker (1986) reported that Eunicella verrucosa were mostly observed on bedrock or boulders but occurred at sites described as ‘moderately silted’. Williamson et al. (2011) recorded responses in the gorgonian Leptogorgia virgulata over 14 days to sedimentation treatments up to 20,000 mg /l.  The gorgonians maintained healthy tissue and polyp feeding activity and did not show any symptoms or significant differences in tissue loss.  A decrease in inorganic suspended solids is unlikely to impact Eunicella verrucosa, however, the species feeds on plankton and suspended organic matter (Cocito et al., 2013) and a reduction in suspended organic material could result in loss of nutrition.  However, the species occurs in areas of moderate water movement and also feeds on plankton.

Sensitivity assessment. Eunicella verrucosa would probably resist some siltation and a change at the benchmark level is unlikely to cause mortality.  Resistance is recorded as ‘High’, resilience as ‘High’ and the species is recorded as ‘Not sensitive’ at the benchmark level.

Smothering and siltation rate changes (light)

Benchmark. ‘Light’ deposition of up to 5 cm of fine material added to the seabed in a single discrete event. Further detail

Evidence

While siltation may inhibit feeding, colonies of the sea fan Eunicella verrucosa produce mucus to clear themselves of silt (Hiscock, pers. comm.). It is, however, thought that smothering causes mortality (Hiscock et al., 2004). Bunker (1986) reported that Eunicella verrucosa was mostly observed on bedrock or boulders but occurred at sites up to ‘moderately silted’.  Sharrock (2012) described most colonies of Eunicella verrucosa around the wreck of the Rosehill as having a degree of silt around them. Eunicella verrucosa forms large colonies which branch profusely up to 50 cm in height but are more often up to 25 cm tall (Picton & Morrow, 2005, Sartoretto & Francour, 2012, Hiscock, pers.comm.).

Sensitivity assessment. Smothering by 5 cm would cover small Eunicella verrucosa, however, the species occurs in moderate water flow and the sediment would likely be removed rapidly.  Therefore, resistance is assessed as ‘High’, resilience as ‘High’ and sensitivity is recorded as ‘Not sensitive’ at the benchmark level.

Smothering and siltation rate changes (heavy)

Benchmark. ‘Heavy’ deposition of up to 30 cm of fine material added to the seabed in a single discrete event. Further detail

Evidence

While siltation may inhibit feeding, colonies of the sea fan Eunicella verrucosa produce mucus to clear themselves of silt (Hiscock, pers. comm.). It is, however, thought that smothering causes mortality (Hiscock et al., 2004). Bunker (1986) reported that Eunicella verrucosa were mostly observed on bedrock or boulders but occurred at sites up to ‘moderately silted’.  Eunicella verrucosa forms large colonies which branch profusely up to 50 cm in height, but are more often up to 25 cm tall (Picton & Morrow, 2005, Sartoretto & Francour, 2012, Hiscock, pers. comm.).

Sensitivity assessment. Smothering by 30 cm of sediment would likely bury Eunicella verrucosa.  The species tends to occur in moderate to high energy environments and it is likely that the sediment would be removed.  However, the damage to the resident community would depend on the time taken for the deposited sediment to be removed. Therefore, resistance is assessed as ‘Low’ as the worst-case scenario. Hence, resilience is probably ‘Medium’ and sensitivity is assessed as ‘Medium’.

Litter

Benchmark. The introduction of man-made objects able to cause physical harm (surface, water column, seafloor or strandline). Further detail

Evidence

Not assessed.  Ghost fishing by discarded fishing gear, lines and pots may cause some damage, discarded lines may get caught on Eunicella verrucosa and increase drag, especially in stormy weather. Fishing lines can cause lesions to the gorgonian coenenchyme, leading to greater aggregates of epibionts that can eventually cause the branch to rupture (Bo et al., 2014).

Electromagnetic changes

Benchmark. A local electric field of 1 V/m or a local magnetic field of 10 µT. Further detail

Evidence

No evidence was found

Underwater noise changes

Benchmark. MSFD indicator levels (SEL or peak SPL) exceeded for 20% of days in a calendar year. Further detail

Evidence

Not relevant

Introduction of light or shading

Benchmark. A change in incident light via anthropogenic means. Further detail

Evidence

Not relevant

Barrier to species movement

Benchmark. A permanent or temporary barrier to species movement over ≥50% of water body width or a 10% change in tidal excursion. Further detail

Evidence

Not relevant.  This pressure is considered applicable to mobile species, e.g. fish and marine mammals rather than seabed habitats.  Eunicella verrucosa colonies are sessile.  Whilst barriers that interfere with larval transport could reduce recruitment or entrain larvae depending on local conditions, dispersal is not considered under the pressure definition and benchmark.

Death or injury by collision

Benchmark. Injury or mortality from collisions of biota with both static or moving structures due to 0.1% of tidal volume on an average tide, passing through an artificial structure. Further detail

Evidence

Not relevant to species occuring on the seabed.  NB. Collision by grounding vessels is addressed under ‘surface abrasion’.

Visual disturbance

Benchmark. The daily duration of transient visual cues exceeds 10% of the period of site occupancy by the feature. Further detail

Evidence

Not relevant

Genetic modification & translocation of indigenous species

Benchmark. Translocation of indigenous species or the introduction of genetically modified or genetically different populations of indigenous species that may result in changes in the genetic structure of local populations, hybridization, or change in community structure. Further detail

Evidence

No evidence was found to suggest that Eunicella verrucosa was subject to translocation, hybridization, or genetic modification.

Introduction or spread of invasive non-indigenous species

Benchmark. The introduction of one or more invasive non-indigenous species (INIS). Further detail

Evidence

Solidobalanus fallax is an invasive southern species barnacle only recently recorded in south west England (Southward et al., 2004) and, along with hydroids and bryozoans, have been observed fouling (primarily damaged or diseased) gorgonians (Hall-Spencer et al., 2007).  Fouling smothers the sea fan polyps and the membrane that covers the skeleton thus killing the live tissue of the sea fan. Eventually this can weaken the fan structure to the extent that fragmentation occurs. This can be accentuated by the weight of fouling turf and attracted silt (Sharrock, 2012). Therefore, resistance is assessed as ‘Medium’, resilience as ‘Medium’ and sensitivity as ‘Medium’.  Due to the constant risk of new invasive species, the literature for this pressure should be revisited.

Introduction of microbial pathogens

Benchmark. The introduction of relevant microbial pathogens or metazoan disease vectors to an area where they are currently not present (e.g. Martelia refringens and Bonamia, Avian influenza virus, viral Haemorrhagic Septicaemia virus). Further detail

Evidence

The first recorded incidence of cold-water coral disease was noted in Eunicella verrucosa, in south west England in 2002 (Hall-Spencer et al., 2007).  Video surveys in south west England from 2003 to 2006 of 634 separate colonies at 13 sites revealed that disease outbreaks were widespread and 9% of colonies had tissue necrosis.  The coenchyme became necrotic in diseased specimens, leading to tissue sloughing and exposing skeletal gorgonin to settlement by fouling organisms. Sites where necrosis was found had significantly higher incidences of fouling. No fungi were isolated from diseased or healthy tissue, but significantly higher concentrations of bacteria occurred in diseased specimens. Vibrio isolated from Eunicella verrucosa did not induce disease at 15°C, but, at 20°C, controls remained healthy and test gorgonians became diseased, regardless of whether Vibrio were isolated from diseased or healthy colonies. Bacteria associated with diseased tissue produced proteolytic and cytolytic enzymes that damaged Eunicella verrucosa tissue and may be responsible for the necrosis observed. Monitoring at the site where the disease was first noted showed new gorgonian recruitment from 2003 to 2006; 5 of the 18 necrotic colonies videoed in 2003 had died and become completely overgrown, whereas others had continued to grow around a dead central area. (Hall-Spencer et al., 2007) 

Sensitivity assessment.  Based on evidence of mortality linked to disease in Eunicella verrucosa (9% of colonies exhibited necrosis, but 13 of the 18 diseased colonies survived throughout the 3 years of monitoring. Resistance is, therefore, assessed as ‘Medium’, resilience as ‘Medium’ and sensitivity as ‘Medium’.

Removal of target species

Benchmark. Removal of species targeted by fishery, shellfishery or harvesting at a commercial or recreational scale. Further detail

Evidence

Eunicella verrucosa has historically been harvested as a curio by divers and was collected in the British Isles (Wells et al., 1983; Bunker , 1986).  However, it is now protected under schedule 5 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and harvesting is illegal.  Eunicella verrucosa is sessile, epifaunal and would have no resistance to harvesting.  Resistance has been assessed as ‘None’ and resilience as ‘Low’ so that sensitivity is assessed as ‘High’.

Removal of non-target species

Benchmark. Removal of features or incidental non-targeted catch (by-catch) through targeted fishery, shellfishery or harvesting at a commercial or recreational scale. Further detail

Evidence

Eunicella verrucosa is sessile epifauna and is likely to be severely damaged or removed by heavy gears, such as scallop dredging (MacDonald et al., 1996).  However, some studies suggests that the species may be more resistant, particularly to low intensity lighter abrasion pressures, such as pots and associated anchor damage (Eno et al. 1996; Sheehan, 2013).  Therefore, a resistance of ‘Low’ is recorded, albeit with a low confidence value owing to the lack of consensus in the literature. Resilience is assessed as ‘Medium’ and sensitivity is ‘Medium’.